IRLF 


REESE   LIBRARY 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 


SCHOOL-HOUSES. 


BY    JAMES    JOHONNOT. 


ARCHITECTURAL  DESIGNS 


BY 


.    E.    HEWES 


UNI       .       tf 


NEW    YORK: 
J.    W.    SCHEEMEKHOKK    &    CO. 

1871. 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1871,  by 

J.  W.  Schermerhorn  &  Co., 
In  the  Office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington. 


LITTLE,  RENNIE  &  Co., 

Stereotypers,  Electrotypers,  and  Printers, 

NEW  YORK. 


DEDICATION. 


To  HON.  EZRA  CORNELL, 

Founder  of  Cornell  University : 

An  Institution  which,  resting  upon  our  Common  School  System, 
is  its  perfect  supplement ;  which,  discarding  the  narrow  formalism 
of  a  single  course  of  study,  recognizes  the  activities  and  interests  of 
every-day  life  as  vital  parts  of  its  instruction ;  which  makes  culture 
wait  upon  use,  and  furnishes  opportunity  to  multiform  aspiration ; 
and  which  proposes  ultimately  to  furnish  instruction  to  "  any  person 
in  any  study,"  making  questions  of  race,  color,  or  sex  irrelevant  and 
impertinent; — this  work  is  respectfully  inscribed  by 

THE  AUTHOR. 


PREFACE. 


THE  work  of  the  author  upon  "  Country  School-Houses," 
published  in  1858,  was  the  first  effort  made  in  this  coun- 
try to  apply  the  principles  of  architectural 
science  to  the  construction  of  school-houses. 
The  reports  received  from  State  Superin- 
tendents, and  from  various  other  sources, 
show  that  this  work  has  contributed  ma- 
terially to  the  improvement  of  school-house 
architecture  within  the  past  ten  years. 

The  constantly  increasing  demand  for  a 
better  class  of  school-houses  in  country  dis- 
tricts has  led  to  the  preparation  of  the  present  volume. 
An  endeavor  has  been  made  to  make  it  as  complete  as 
possible,  using  all  the  best  material  of  the  former  work 
and  all  the  recent  improvements  in  the  construction  of 
school-houses  and  school  furniture. 

It  contains  a  great  variety  of  plans  and  elevations,  with 
full  and  accurate  descriptions,  so  that  varied  tastes  may 


PREFACE. 


THE  work  of  the  author  upon  "  Country  School-Houses," 
published  in  1858,  was  the  first  effort  made  in  this  coun- 
try to  apply  the  principles  of  architectural 
science  to  the  construction  of  school-houses. 
The  reports  received  from  State  Superin- 
tendents, and  from  various  other  sources, 
show  that  this  work  has  contributed  ma- 
terially to  the  improvement  of  school-house 
architecture  within  the  past  ten  years. 

The  constantly  increasing  demand  for  a 
better  class  of  school-houses  in  country  dis- 
tricts has  led  to  the  preparation  of  the  present  volume. 
An  endeavor  has  been  made  to  make  it  as  complete  as 
possible,  using  all  the  best  material  of  the  former  work 
and  all  the  recent  improvements  in  the  construction  of 
school-houses  and  school  furniture. 

It  contains  a  great  variety  of  plans  and  elevations,  with 
full  and  accurate  descriptions,  so  that  varied  tastes  may 


6  PREFACE. 

be  gratified,  and  any  carpenter  can  construct  a  building 
precisely  as  described.  Tt  also  contains  a  full  description 
of  the  most  approved  school  furniture  and  apparatus,  so 
that  a  school  may  be  supplied  with  everything  necessary 
to  its  highest  success  without  recourse  to  untried  and 
costly  experiments. 

To  make  the  work  of  greater  value  to  every  school  dis- 
trict, hints  and  suggestions  in  regard  to  school  arrange- 
ment, and  the  care  and  use  of  school  furniture  and 
apparatus,  have  been  frequently  interspersed  through  its 
pages. 

With  the  hope  that  it  may  contribute  to  the  improve- 
ment of  our  common  schools,  this  work  is  respectfully 
submitted  to  teachers,  school-officers,  and  all  who  are 
interested  in  the  cause  of  education. 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTEE  I. 

GENERAL     SURVEY. 

PAGE 

Progress  of  Architecture — School-Houses — Log  Houses — Necessity  of  Good 
School-Houses — Present  Defects — Unsightliness — Poor  Construction — 
Smallness  of  Size — Want  of  Ventilation — Inadequate  Yards  and  Play- 
grounds— Want  of  Necessary  Out-buildings 13 


CHAPTEE  II. 

EXTERNAL     ARRANGEMENTS. 

Principles  to  be  observed — The  Location — Avoidance  of  Malaria — Central 
Situation— The  Lot— Size— Form— Position  of  the  School-House—Out- 
side Structure — Entrances — Wood-House — Walks — Fence 20 

CHAPTEE   III. 

INTERNAL     ARRANGEMENTS. 

Size  of  the  School-Room — Freedom  of  Movement — Breathing  Room — Shape 
of  the  Room — Seats  and  Desks — Double  and  Single  Desks — Seats  and 
Desks  Facing  the  front — Side  Rooms — Ventilation — Spaces — Cleanliness 
—Place  foi  Blackboards— Platforms 26 

CHAPTEE  IV. 

LIGHT. 

Want  of  Care  in  the  Arrangement  of  Light — Results  of  Recent  Investiga- 
tions— Detects  of  Present  Systems — Dim  Lights — Glare  of  Light — Proper 
Arrangement  of  Windows — Cross  Lights — Height  of  Windpws — Groups 
of  Windows— Blinds— Size  of  Glass. .  34 


8  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTEE  V. 

HEATING     AND     VENTILATION. 

PAGE 

Problems  to  be  Solved — Economy  of  Fuel — Equal  Distribution  of  Heat — 
Plentiful  Supply  of  Pure  Air — Composition  of  Air — Sources  of  Carbonic 
Acid  Gas — Sources  of  other  Impurities — Amount  of  Air  necessary — Ven- 
tilation Indispensable — Responsibility  for  Neglect — Radiation  of  Heat — 
Conduction  of  Heat — Capacity  of  Bodies  to  receive  Heat — How  Air  is 
heated — Effects  of  Heat  upon  Ah* — Impurities  in  the  Room — Fire-places 
— Stoves — Windows— Openings  in  the  Ceiling — Double  Openings  in  the 
Ceiling — Hot- Air  Furnaces — Mistakes  in  Arrangements — The  Best  Ar- 
rangement— Chimneys  and  Flues — Stoves— Operations  of  the  Stove  and 
Chimney — Operations  of  the  Hot  Air — Perfection  of  Action — Moisture — 
Conclusion 38 

CHAPTER  VI. 

GENERAL    CONSTRUCTION. 

Building  and  Architecture — Uses  of  Building — Materials — Workmanship — 
Responsibility  for  Bad  Construction— Architectural  Appearance— Greek 
Architecture — Characteristics  and  Uses — Loss  of  Room — Gothic  Archi- 
tecture— Modern  Architecture — Leading  Ideas  in  the  Construction  of 
School-Houses 52 

CHAPTER  VII. 

PLANS     AND     ELEVATIONS. 

General  Designs — Cheap  Houses — More  Elaborate  Buildings — Shape  and 
Size  of  Rooms — Design  I.,  with  Three  Elevations — Design  II.,  with 
Four  Elevations — Design  III.,  with  Five  Elevations — Design  IV.,  with 
Five  Elevations — Design  V.,  with  Six  Elevations — Union  School-Houses 
—Defects  of  Ungraded  Schools— Advantages  of  Gradation— Primary 
Schools— Intermediate  Schools— High  Schools— The  University— Nor- 
mal Schools— Work  Schools— Houses  adapted  to  Union  Schools— De- 
sign VI.,  with  Six  Elevations— Design  VII.,  with  Seven  Elevations— 
The  Use  of  Concrete  for  Building— Design  VIII.,  with  Three  Elevations- 
Design  IX.,  with  One  Elevation— Design  X.,  with  One  Elevation- 
Design  XI.,  with  One  Elevation 60 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

FURNITURE. 

Importance  of  Good  Furniture — Health,  Comfort,  and  Convenience  of  Pu- 
pils—General Furniture— Scrapers— Mats— Brooms  and  Brushes— Pails 
Umbrella  Stands — Clothes  Hooks — Fire  Apparatus — Clock — Ther- 
mometer—Special Furniture— What  is  Demanded— Direction  for  Con- 
structing Desks— Table  of  Heights 196 


CONTENTS.  9 

CHAPTER  IX. 

APPARATUS. 

PAGE 

Mistaken  Notions — Simple  Apparatus — General  Apparatus — Blackboards — 
Direction  for  Making — The  Slated  Wall — Paper  Surface — Liquid  Slating 
— Stone  Slates — Blackboard  Erasers — Globes — Apparatus  for  Primary 
Schools — Objects  to  be  gained — Natural  Objects — Form — Geometric 
Solids — Specimens  of  the  Animal  Kingdom — Plants  and  Trees — Minerals 
and  Crystals — Size  —  Measures  —  Tables  of  Measure  —  Applications — 
Weight — Balance — Color — Objects  illustrating  Color — Order — How  cul- 
tivated— Classification — Results — Cabinet — Metals — Minerals — Chemical 
Products — Vegetation — Grains — Food — Products  of  the  Sea — Animal 
Products — Manufactured  Articles — Applications — Slates — Paper  Slates — 
Playthings — Cards — Pictures — Stereoscopic  Views — Numerical  Frame — 
Special  Apparatus — Maps — Philosophical  Apparatus — Tellurian — Magnet 
—Orrery 205 


CHAPTER  X. 

OUT-BUILDINGS. 

General  Neglect  of  Proper  Out-buildings — Extract  from  New  York  Reports 
— Extract  from  Connecticut  Reports — Number  of  Privies — Situation — 
Character — Principles  to  be  observed — Necessity  of  a  School  Lot — Re- 
forms needed — General  Construction — Privy  for  Girls'  Yard — Privy  for 
Boys'  Yard— Care 219 

CHAPTER  XL 

ARRANGING  AND  ORNAMENTING  GROUNDS. 

Grounds,  why  needed — Place  for  Exercise — Necessity  for  Exercise — Health 
— Mental  Development — Systematic  Exercise — Character  and  Importance 
of  Playgrounds — Gymnastic  Apparatus — Ornamenting  Grounds — Trees 
— A.  J.  Downing  upon  Trees — Elements  of  Beauty  and  Variety — Effect 
of  Trees — Selecting  Trees — Varieties  that  harmonize  with  the  Landscape 
— Kinds  of  Trees — Arrangement — Straight  Rows — Single  Trees — Groups 
— Principles  of  grouping — Openings — Shrubs — Hedges — How  arranged 
—Flowers — Conclusion 225 

CHAPTER  XII. 

ARCHITECTURE    AN    EDUCATIONAL    INFLUENCE. 

Uses  of  Buildings — Province  of  Architecture — Taste — Material  Pursuits- 
Refinement — Change  of  Sentiment — Evidences  of  Change — Influences 
that  affect  Taste — Architectural  Ideas — Proportion — Symmetry — Va- 
riety— Harmony — Unity — Architecture  in  the  Old  World — Effect  of 
Beautiful  Forms— Principles  of  Taste 233 


10  CONTENTS. 


APPENDIX. 


CHAPTER  I. 

GRADED    SCHOOLS. 

PAGE 

Town  System  versus  District  System — Comparative  Incompetence  of  Dis- 
trict Officers — The  Town  the  True  Unit  for  Educational  Purposes — 
Changes  of  Teachers — Equalizing  Taxation — Importance  of  Classifica- 
tion— Effects  of  grading  Schools — Expenditure — Testimony  of  Hon. 
Henry  Barnard — Faults  of  District  Organizations — Anticipated  Difficul- 
ties removed — Opinions  of  Mr.  Boutwell,  Secretary  of  Massachusetts 
Board  of  Education — Summary  of  the  Advantages  of  the  Town  System  239 


CHAPTER  II. 

HEATING    AND    VENTILATION. 

Ventilation  in  general — Stoves — Their  Faults  and  their  Uses — Advantages 
of  Stoves  on  the  score  of  Economy — Heat  as  a  Sanitary  Agent — Dr. 
Franklin's  Stove — Use  of  Ventilating  Stoves  during  the  War — Use  of 
Stoves  in  the  School-room — Heat,  how  transmitted — Indifference  of 
People  to  the  subject  of  Ventilation — Deaths  from  Foul  Air — Compara- 
tive Cheapness  of  the  True  System  of  Ventilation— Ventilation  of  Pub- 
lic Buildings ;  Tests  of  Purity  of  Air — Temperature  of  Churches  and 
Public  Halls — Natural  Ventilators— Forces  to  be  considered  in  devising 
any  System  of  Ventilation — Pure  Air  of  more  importance  than  Food — 
Sunshine  Nature's  Great  Disinfectant ;  Importance  of  Direct  Sunshine 
to  the  School-room;  Folly  of  Thick  Curtains  and  Closed  Shutters — 
Light  regulated  by  Blinds— Objections  to  Sunshine  and  Air— Too  much 
Vitality  and  Strength  resulting 261 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTKATIONS. 


PAGES. 

Book  Rest 30. 

Chimneys 17,  31,  38,  49,  50,  51. 

Cornice 19. 

Cupola  and  Gables 18,  20,  23,  39,  52,  53,  54,  55,  56,  58,  59,  60,  62,  85, 

98, 115, 122, 128, 131, 132,  156, 184, 187,  188, 

218,  233,  234. 

Dilapidated  School-house 16. 

Doorways 13,  21,  23,  26,  30,  57,  61, 128, 133, 137. 

Elevations  in  Perspective  ....  63,  66,  69,  72,  75,  78,  81,  84,  87,  90,  93,  96, 99, 102, 

105, 108,  111,  114, 117,  120, 123, 126, 129,  136, 

139, 142, 145, 148, 151, 154, 157, 160, 163,  166, 

169, 172, 176, 179, 182, 185, 189,  193. 

Fences 24,  25. 

Ground  Plans 27,  57,  73,  86,  103,  116,  143,  155,  161,  178,  184, 

188, 192. 

Log  School-house 14. 

Old-fashioned  School-house. . .  15. 

Out-buildings 219,  222,  223. 

Plan  of  Grounds 225,  230. 

Seats  and  Desks 28,  29. 

Settee 33. 

Stove 44. 

Teacher's  Desk 32. 

Ventilation 47,  48. 

Windows 34,  35,  36,  37,  40,  44,  45,  61,  73,  131,  134,  138, 

236,  237. 


LIBfeflS 

''    THt  ~ 

UHIYSRS1TY 


OUR  SCHOOL-HOUSES. 


CHAPTER   I. 

GENERAL   SURVEY. 

FOR  the  past  few  years  architectural  science  has  made 
rapid  and  decided  progress.  In  nearly  every  kind  of 
buildings,  improvements  have  been  made, 
both  in  regard  to  external  appearance  and 
internal  arrangement.  Evidences  of  this 
progress  may  be  seen  in  the  superior  elegance 
of  the  modern  public  edifices  and  private 
residences  of  our  cities  and  villages,  and  in 
the  greater  comfort  and  convenience  of  the 
later  farm-houses  in  the  country.  The  in- 
crease of  architectural  knowledge  has  cor- 
respondingly developed  the  general  taste,  Figil< 
which  in  its  turn  demands  a  greater  knowledge.  Thus 
one  step  in  improvement  leads  to  others  still  further  in 
advance. 

Of  all  buildings,  however,  the  last  to  feel  this  progress- 
ive impulse  were  school-houses.  In  cities  and  large  vil- 
lages, where  the  necessity  exists  of  erecting  large  and 
costly  buildings,  it  is  true  that  public  attention  has  been 


14 


OUR   SCHOOL-HOUSES 


turned  in  this  direction,  and  there  has  been  developed  a 
distinctive  architecture  which  applies  the  principles  of 
science  to  the  wants  and  necessities  of  the  school.  But 
in  the  rural  districts  generally  too  little  attention  has 
been  given  to  the  matter.  The  principles  developed  in 
the  building  of  large  union  schools  are  not  applicable  to 
the  wants  of  the  smaller  school  districts. 

The  old  log  school- 
houses  can  be  remem- 
bered by  most  of  the  older 
inhabitants.  It  was  a 
necessity  of  primitive 
times,  and  was  on  an 
equality  with  the  dwell- 
ings of  the  people.  A 
better  kind  of  structure 
has  succeeded  it,  though 
we  find  in  the  last  report 
of  the  Superintendent  of 
New  York  that  one  hun- 
dred and  twenty  log  school-houses  are  still  in  existence 
in  the  Empire  State. 

The  reports  of  the  Superintendents  of  several  States, 
within  the  past  few  years,  show  that  an  improvement  has 
gone  on  in  many  sections,  indicating  a  genuine  educational 
revival.  And  yet  a  large  proportion  of  the  school-houses 
in  the  country  are  but  illy  adapted  to  meet  the  high 
requirements  of  modern  educational  ideas.  Even  the 
newer  and  costlier  houses  are  often  built  without  a  proper 
knowledge  of  the  wants  and  necessities  of  the  school, 
while  a  very  large  number  of  the  older  houses  are  utterly 
unfit  for  human  occupancy. 

That  good  school-houses  are  indispensable  to  the  very 
existence  of  good  schools  is  a  proposition  that  needs  no 


Fig.  2. — LOG   SCHOOL-HOUSE. 


GENERAL    SURVEY.  15 

demonstration.  It  is  universally  accepted  by  educators, 
and  is  beginning  to  be  apprehended  by  the  community  at 
large.  But  with  all  the  progress  that  has  been  made, 
school-houses  are  still  deficient  in  the  following  re- 
spects : 

1.  THEY  ARE  UNSIGHTLY  IN  APPEARANCE.  A  traveller 
passing  through  a  section  of  country  can  readily  distin- 
guish the  school-house  by  these  distinctions.  It  is  situ- 


Fiff.  3.— OLD  FASHIONED  BCHOOL-HOTISK. 


ated  in  a  forlorn  and  lonely  place.  It  exhibits  every 
mark  of  neglect  and  dilapidation.  It  is  entirely  exposed 
to  the  depredations  of  stray  cattle  and  unruly  boys,  by 
being  situated  in  the  street  and  not  protected  by  a 
fence.  It  is  unpainted,  and  nearly  half  unglazed.  Its 
style  is  nondescript,  being  too  small  for  a  barn,  too 
deficient  in  the  elements  of  just  proportion  for  a  dwell- 
ing, and  too  much  neglected  for  the  out-buildings  of  a 
farm — in  short,  too  repulsive  in  all  respects,  exhibiting 
too  many  marks  of  parsimony  to  be  anything  but  a  school- 
house. 

It  seems  to  have  been  erecte'd  simply  for  shelter,  and 
with  the  smallest  cost  in  the  outset  ;  to  call  it  cheapness 
or  economy  would  be  a  misnomer.  It  stands  a  vile 


16  OUR   SCHOOL-HOUSES. 

offence  against  good  taste,  and  an  ugly  excrescence  upon 
the  landscape.  It  makes  no  appeal  to  the  higher  senti- 
ments, and,  consequently,  no  effort  can  preserve  the 
building  or  fixtures  from  disfigurement  and  ruin.  Every 
teacher  knows  the  difficulty  of  protecting  the  school- 
house  and  furniture  from  the  ubiquitous  Yankee  jack- 
knife.  The  result  is,  that  the  building,  unsightly  when 
new,  becomes  more  so  through  the  rudeness  which 
its  very  appearance  stimulates.  The  busy  fingers  of 
time  may  soften  its  outlines  and  spread  over  its  sur- 
face sober  tints  of  brown  ;  but  the  innate  ugliness  of 
the  structure  defies  all  efforts  to  make  it  other  than  a 
monstrosity. 

2.  THEY  ARE  POORLY  BUILT.     The  foundations  are  often 
so  imperfectly  laid  that  they  soon  tumble,  arid  the  build- 


Fig.  4.— DILAPIDATED  SCHOOL-HOUSE. 

ings  are  racked  to  pieces  or  stand  askew.  The  frames 
and  finish  are  of  the  cheapest  kind,  and  soon  the  winds 
find  their  way  through  in  every  direction.  The  desks 
and  benches  are  ingeniously  inconvenient  and  uncom- 
fortable, producing  pains  and  aches  innumerable.  Most 
people  of  the  present  generation  have  a  vivid  and  painful 
recollection  of  the  seats  of  our  old  school-houses,  without 


GENERAL   SURVEY  17 

backs,  and  often  too  high  to  permit  the  feet  to  touch  the 
floor.  The  suffering  and  uneasiness  so  produced  were 
almost  equal  to  the  punishment  of  exposure  at  the  pillory 
or  confinement  in  the  stocks,  bestowed  in  olden  times 
upon  criminals.  The  whole  construction  of  the  building, 
both  external  and  internal,  were  such  that  it  merited 
and  received  no  repair,  and  soon  lapsed  into  a  mass  of 
ruins.  Although  great  improvements  have  been  made 
within  the  present  generation,  the  ideas  concerning  the 
construction  of  school-houses  are  still  crude  in  the  ex- 
treme, and  poor  buildings  are  the  rule  rather  than  the 
exception. 

3.  THEY  ARE  NOT  OF  SUFFICIENT  SIZE.     The  room  is  so 
confined  that  the  pupils  are  forced  into  uncomfortable  and 
inconvenient   proximity  to  each  other.      Their  work  is 
interrupted  and  their  personal  rights  are  violated.     The 
young,  the  weak,  and  the  innocent  are  forced  into  the 
immediate  atmosphere  of  coarseness  and  impurity,  with- 
out a  possibility  of  counteracting  influences.     Again,  the 
ceilings  are  so  low  that  there  is  an  inadequate  supply  of 
fresh  air,  and,  as  a  consequence  of  all  this,  physical  as 
well  as  moral  disease  is  engendered.     Proper  discipline 
in  such  schools  is  impossible,  as  the  inexorable  laws  of 
nature  oppose  the  teacher's  work. 

4.  THEY  ARE  NOT  PROPERLY  VENTILATED.     The  quantity 
of  air,  limited  at  first,  shortly  becomes  impure,  and  there 
are  no  means  of  changing  it.     A  poisoning 

process  then  commences,  the  virulence  of 
which  is  in  direct  ratio  to  the  tightness  of 
the  room.  A  badly  built  or  dilapidated 
school-house,  under  these  circumstances,  be- 
comes a  positive  blessing,  by  preventing  the 
exclusion  of  air  from  without.  Besides  the 
injury  to  health,  the  vitiated  air  of  the  school-room,  by  its 

2 


18  OUR   SCHOOL-HOUSES. 

stupefying  action  on  the  brain,  prevents  intellectual  ac- 
tion, and  so  defeats  the  purposes  of  the  school. 

5.  THEY  HAVE  INADEQUATE  YARDS  AND  PLAY-GROUNDS. 
Even  in  country  places,  where  land  is  very  cheap,  the 
school-house  is  frequently  placed  directly  on  the  line  of 
the  street,  and   generally  at  the  corner  where  several 
roads  meet.     Not  one  inch  of  ground  is  set  apart  for  the 
use  of  the  pupils  when  out  of  the  school-room.     There  is 
no  place  for  recreation  or  privacy,  all  being  exposed  to 
the  public  eye.     The  street  is  the  only  play-ground,  and 
filth,  within  doors  and  without,  is  the  consequence.    With 
such  an  arrangement,  it  is  impossible  to  inculcate  those 
lessons  of  neatness  and  refinement  which  are  among  the 
most  important  objects  of  education. 

6.  THEY  ARE  DESTITUTE  OF  THE  NECESSARY  OUT-BUILD- 
INGS.    In  many  cases  there  is  no  privy,  and  in  many 

others  there  is  at  best  but  one 
for  a  large  school  of  both  sexes. 
A  man  in  a  Christian  land,  who 
would  erect  a  house  for  his  home 
and  not  provide  a  privy,  would 
be  considered  worse  than  a  hea- 
then ;  yet,  in  multitudes  of  our 
country  districts,  this  indispen- 
sable adjunct  of  civilization  is  al- 
together omitted,  although  in  a 
Fi°-6-  school  both  sexes  are  brought 

together  without  the  purifying  and  restraining  influence 
which  belongs  to  the  household.  Every  feeling  of  refine- 
ment and  decency  is  outraged  by  the  exposure  here 
indicated,  and,  in  some  measure,  the  same  results  ensue 
from  having  but  one  small  exposed  privy  for  a  large 
school. 

From  these  facts  it  will  seem  that  there  is  a  neces- 


GENERAL   SURVEY.  19 

sity  for  reform  in  the  construction  of  school  buildings. 
Indeed,  it  is  the  united  testimony  of  superintendents, 
committees  of  investigation,  and  boards  of  school  visitors, 
that  in  many  sections  of  country  the  pupils  in  school  are 
worse  provided  for  in  all  things  pertaining  to  comfort, 
convenience,  and  the  cultivation  of  good  manners  and 
morals,  than  the  inmates  of  our  pauper-houses,  or  the 
prisoners  in  our  penitentiaries. 

An  attention  to  these  considerations  is  of  primary 
importance  in  any  scheme  for  the  advancement  and  per- 
fection of  our  school  system.  The  idea  is  becoming  quite 
prevalent  that  manners  and  conduct  should  receive  due 
attention  in  a  true  system  of  education,  and  that  the 
claims  of  these  vastly  outweigh  those  of  any  branch  of 
mere  rote  instruction,  o,r,  indeed,  of  any  science.  This 
idea  forms  a  basis  for  the  criticism  of  the  systems  of  in- 
struction now  in  vogue,  and  is  the  key-note  of  the  new 
education  which  the  age  demands.  A  large  share  of  the 
neglect  in  these  most  vital  of  all  departments  of  education 
is  attributable  to  the  want  of  attention  to  the  pl^sical 
comforts  of  pupils  in  the  construction  and  furnishing  of 
school-houses. 

The  remedy  for  these  evils  will  be  shown  in  the  suc- 
ceeding chapters. 


Fig.  7. 


CHAPTER  II. 

EXTERNAL    ARRANGEMENTS. 

IN  the  construction  and  arrangements  of  school-houses, 
certain  fundamental  principles  must  be  observed.     These 
principles,  in  the  order  of  importance,  are 

HEALTH,  COMFORT,  CONVENIENCE,  and  COST. 

It  requires  no  argument  to  show  that  when 
this  order  is  inverted,  and  cost  is  made  the 
first  consideration,  the  higher  interests  of 
the  school  must  be  neglected  and  true  prog- 
ress rendered  impossible. 

The  preservation  of  health  should  be 
considered  of  prime  importance.  Cost, 
comfort,  and  convenience  should  be  subor- 
,_„.  ^inate(j  to  this.  Unless  our  children  can  be 
educated  in  a  way  compatible  with  the  preservation  of 
their  health,  it  were  better  at  once  to  tear  down  our 
school-houses  and  abolish  our  school  system. 

THE  LOCATION. — The  location  of  the  school-house  should 
be  at  a  distance  from  all  sources  of  malaria.  The  foul 
breath  of  decaying  vegetation,  or  of  stagnant  water,  be- 
comes a  fruitful  source  of  disease  and  death.  Unseen, 
it  insidiously  does  its  work,  arid  spreads  the  atmosphere 
of  the  charnel-house  as  far  as  its  influence  extends.  The 
diseases  seeming  to  be  epidemic,  which  sometimes  break 
out  in  schools,  may  often  be  traced  to  some  neighboring 
swamp  or  marsh  or  heap  of  decaying  vegetables.  Some 


EXTERNAL    ARRANGEMENTS.  21 

manufactories  generate  disagreeable  gases  which,  if 
breathed  for  any  considerable  time,  are  deleterious  in  the 
extreme.  The  school-house  should  be  placed 
at  a  distance  from  all  these  sources  of  disease. 
It  should  also  be  situated  away  from  the  noise 
and  dust  of  the  street.  There  is  scarcely  any- 
thing more  annoying  or  unwholesome  than  the 
clouds  of  dust  which  are  driven  along  the 
highway.  Let  the  location,  if  possible,  be  upon 
a  hill-side,  where  it  may  be  free  from  these 
annoyances,  and  where  the  purest  air  is  supplied 
in  unstinted  measure.  For  the  moral  health  of 
the  pupils,  let  the  school-house  be  placed  at  a 
distance  from  the  places  where  scenes  of  brutality  or 
debauchery  are  ever  exhibited.  If  no  natural  obstacle 
oppose,  the  centre  of  the  district  would  seem  to  be  the 
best  location  for  the  school-house  ;  this  centre  having 
reference,  of  course,  to  population  as  well  as  distance. 
If  an  acre  of  land  is  taken,  perhaps  it  might  most  conve- 
niently be  laid  out  in  a  plot  sixteen  rods  front  and  ten 
deep.  Any  other  form  might  be  adopted,  and,  under 
some  circumstances,  another  might  be  preferable. 

Of  the  situation  of  the  lot,  in  reference  to  scenery,  etc., 
more  will  be  said  in  the  chapter  upon  ornamental  grounds. 

THE  LOT. — A  large  and  commodious  school-lot  is  of 
prime  necessity.  Without  it,  it  is  impossible  to  attain 
some  of  the  most  essential  ends  of  education.  A  little 
attention  on  the  part  of  trustees  will  secure  an  ample 
lot  at  very  little  expense.  When  public  attention  has 
been  sufficiently  turned  to  the  importance  of  this  subject, 
it  will  be  comparatively  easy  to  secure  the  donation  of  a 
school-lot,  or,  at  least,  the  purchase  of  one  at  a  small 
price.  When  the  wants  of  the  school,  and  the  necessities 
of  education  are  taken  into  consideration,  one  acre  of  land 


22  OUR   SCHOOL-HOUSES. 

at  least,  is  required  for  every  school ;  and  when  such  a 
lot  can  be  obtained,  a  school-house  should  never  be  erected 
upon  a  smaller  one. 

It  sometimes  happens  that  the  owners  of  land  near  the 
centre  of  the  district  refuse  to  sell  for  school  purposes  at 
any  price.  Such  narrowness  and  illiberality  is  at  present, 
in  most  of  our  States,  without  remedy.  But  we  think,  as 
popular  education  is  now  recognized  as  one  of  the  func- 
tions of  the  State,  it  would  be  well  to  provide  for  taking 
the  land  at  an  appraisal  by  disinterested  persons,  as  land 
for  highways,  railroads,  and  other  public  purposes  is  now 
taken.  A  law  allowing  the  trustees  of  districts  and  the 
town  authorities  to  locate  the  school-house  lot,  with  or 
without  the  consent  of  the  owner  of  the  land,  would  be  a 
highly  salutary  one,  and  would  prevent  strife,  while  ren- 
dering an  important  service  to  the  schools. 

A  law  substantially  embodying  the  views  given  above 
has  been  enacted  in  the  State  of  New  York,  and  we  be- 
lieve in  some  of  the  other  States,  and  the  results  have 
been  beneficial.  By  this  law  the  schools  are  placed  be- 
yond the  caprice  or  obstinacy  of  those  who  may  possess 
the  land  most  desirable  for  the  site  of  the  school-house. 

POSITION  OF  THE  BUILDINGS. — In  a  lot  sixteen  rods  by 
ten,  the  house  should  stand  very  nearly  in  the  centre. 
This  would  be  at  a  sufficient  distance  from  the  street  to 
avoid  noise  and  dust,  with  room  enough  in  the  rear  for 
the  necessary  out-buildings.  It  would  also  divide  the 
yard  into  two  parts,  for  boys  and  girls.  In  any  lot,  the 
house  should  be  placed  in  the  middle  as  to  width,  and  at 
a  distance  from  the  street,  so  that  the  out-buildings  may 
be  thrown  into  the  back-ground. 

OUTSIDE  STRUCTURE. — Buildings  of  small  size,  and  con- 
sisting of  but  a  single  room,  in  these  designs,  admit  of 
but  little  architectural  display,  within  the  limits  of  sound 


EXTERNAL    ARRANGEMENTS. 


23 


Fig.  10. 


economy.  In  deciding  upon  the  size  and  plan  of  the 
buildings,  and  the  arrangement  of  the  doors,  windows, 
and  roof,  the  first  care  should  be  to 
provide  for  health  and  comfort.  Be- 
sides this  primary  consideration,  due 
attention  should  be  given  to  the  dura- 
bility of  the  structure,  and  to  the  ob- 
servance of  the  laws  of  architecture 
in  'the  proportion  and  arrangements 
of  the  building  and  its  several 
parts. 

In  the  plans  and  details  of  this  work 
an  attempt  has  been  made  to  carry 
these  ideas  into  practical  execution. 
A  sufficient  variety  of  elevations  has 
been  given  to  permit'the  exercise  of 
different  tastes.  The  parts  have 
been  arranged  so  as  to  meet  the  requirements  of  archi- 
tectural law,  but  outside  appearance  has  been  subordi- 
nated to  practical  use. 

In  most  cases  it  will  be  observed  that  separate  en- 
trances for  boys  and  girls  have  been  provided.  This 
arrangement  is  regarded  as  highly  impor- 
tant, It  prevents  improprieties  between 
the  sexes,  while  passing  in  and  out  of  the 
school-room.  The  room  in  the  lobby  is  also 
used  for  a  clothes-room,  at  a  manifest  saving 
of  expense. 

In  most  of  the  plans  proposed,  the  wood- 
house  is  placed  directly  in  the  rear,  so  that 
a  portion  of  it  may  serve  for  a  back  hall.  This  arrange- 
ment contributes  to  harmony  of  external  appearance,  and 
prevents  the  outrdoor  air  from  flowing  directly  into  the 
school-room  ;  thus,  serving  a  double  purpose,  the  wood- 


11. 


24 


OUR    SCHOOL-HOUSES. 


house  is  very  desirable.  A  basement,  however,  might  be 
prepared  for  the  storage  of  fuel. 

WALKS. — That  is  a  false  economy  which  refuses  or 
neglects  to  furnish  the  necessary  walks  in  and  about  the 
school  premises.  Generally  but  a  step  removed  from  the 
carriage-path  in  the  street,  and  without  walks  of  any 
description  anywhere  in  the  vicinity,  except  a  single  path 
of  the  native  soil,  the  wonder  is  that  the  school-house  is 
not  more  rather  than  less  offensive.  During  some  seasons 
of  the  year  the  children  must  wade  through  mud  and 
water  to  reach  the  school,  and 'not  one  foot  of  dry  space 
is  provided  where  they  can  cleanse  themselves  until  they 
enter  the  house  itself. 

The  consequence  is  that  dirt  is  everywhere,  and  tidi- 
ness is  impossible.  To  remedy  this,  arrangements  should 
be  made  to  preclude  the  necessity  of  getting  into  the  mud 
within  the  school-yard,  and  to  enable  the  pupils  to  re- 
move it  from  their  shoes  when  coming  in  from  the  street. 
A  plank  or  gravel  path  should  be  laid  from  the  front  gate 
to  the  front  door.  The  steps  at  the  door  should  be  large 
and  commodious.  These  steps,  and  perhaps  also  a  portion 
of  the  walk,  should  be  provided  with  scrapers.  Plank 
walks  should  also  extend  from  the  back  entrance  to  the 
privies,  and  perhaps  around  the  sides  of  the  school-house. 


iAA_ 


Fig.  12. 


FENCE. — The  school-lot  can   never   be  kept   in   order 
unless  it  is  inclosed  by  a  good  and  substantial  fence  ;  this 


EXTERNAL    ARRANGEMENTS. 


25 


fence  should  be  built  of  good  materials,  and  put  up  in  a 
substantial  manner.  A  picket,  or  a  post-and-rail  fence, 
/would  answer  every  purpose.  The  gates  should  be  built 
strong  and  heavy,  and  so  arranged  as  to  shut  themselves. 
It  might  be  well  to  set  posts  within  the  gates  in  such  a 
manner  that  cattle  could  not  get  in,  even  if  the  gates 
should  be  left  open.  The  fence  that  divides  the  yard 
should  be  of  matched  boards,  and  from  eight  to  ten  feet 
high,  faced  on  the  boys'  side.  The  wood-house  door 
should  open  into  the  boys'  yard.  In  a  succeeding  chapter 
the  subject  of  out-houses  will  be  treated  more  at  large. 


Fig.  13. 


CHAPTER   III. 

INTERNAL    ARRANGEMENTS. 

IN  the  arrangement  of  the  interior  of  the  school-room 
the  same  principles  should  be  considered  as  in  the  exter- 
nal structure,  and  in  the  same  order,  viz., 
health,  comfort,  convenience,  and  cost.  A 
mistake  made  may  not  only  in  the  end  be 
exceedingly  costly,  but  may  go  far  to  defeat 
the  ends  of  education. 

SIZE  OF  THE  SCHOOL-ROOM. — This  is  a 
consideration  of  great  importance.  Every 
pupil  should  have  sufficient  room  to  sit 
and  move  without  being  confined  or  jostled. 
There  should  be  sufficient  space  in  the  room 
for  a  large  reservoir  of  air.  Packing  children  close  to- 
gether, so  that  the  breath  and  atmosphere  of  each  is  shared 
by  his  neighbors,  is  an  unmitigated  evil.  Every  child  has 
a  right  to  his  own  personality  and  his  own  share  of  uncon- 
taminated  air,  and  whatever  deprives  him  of  these  be- 
comes an  outrage.  This  is  often  done,  however,  by  the 
closeness  of  contact  with  others  into  which  he  is  forced, 
and  by  the  limited  capacity  of  the  apartment  in  which  he 
is  compelled  to  sit. 

A  school-room  should  also  be  sufficiently  large  to  fur- 
nish each  pupil  with  space  enough  for  a  desk  and  chair, 
and  for  free  and  unobstructed  movement.  There  should 
also  be  room  for  the  personal  accommodation  of  the 


INTERNAL    ARRANGEMENTS. 


27 


teacher,  and  for  purposes  of  recitation.  The  height  of 
the  smallest  school-room  should  never  be  less  than  twelve 
feet,  and  this  should  be  increased  to  sixteen  feet  in  the 
larger  houses.  Comfort  and  convenience  in  sitting  and 
moving  about  depend  upon  the  area  of  the  room  ;  the 
quantity  of  air,  upon  the  area,  and  the  height  combined. 
In  the  plans  furnished  in  this  work,  eighteen  feet  area, 
and  nearly  two  hundred  and  fifty  cubic  feet  of  air,  have 
been  appropriated  to  each  pupil. 

SHAPE  OF  THE  ROOM. — Of  all  rectangular  forms,  a  square 
room  will  give  the  greatest  amount  of  space,  in  proportion 
to  the  extent  of 
outside  walls. 
Many  teachers, 
however,  prefer 
a  room  one- 
fourth  or  one- 
fifth  longer  than 
its  width  ;  and 
probably  no 
better  form  can 
be  devised  than  this,  or  one  between  this  and  square. 
When  the  parallelogram  is  used,  it  will  be  found  more 
convenient  to  leave  the  space  for  the  teacher's  desk,  and 
recitation  benches,  upon  the  end,  instead  of  the  side.  The 
octagonal  form  is  thought  by  some  to  be  peculiarly 
adapted  to  school  purposes,  and  specimens  have  been 
presented  in  this  work. 

SEATS  AND  DESKS. — For  the  health  and  comfort  of  the 
pupil,  the  height  of  the  seats  should  be  so  graduated  as 
to  enable  him  to  set  his  feet  squarely  upon  the  floor.  A 
contrary  custom  often  produces  suffering  and  a  distortion 
of  the  lower  limbs.  Seats  without  backs  are  also  to  be 
deprecated.  To  relieve  the  overstrained  muscles  unnatu- 


Fig.  15. 


28 


OUR   SCHOOL-HOUSES. 


ral  postures  are  assumed,  and  a  crooked  spine  is  the  very 
probable  consequence. 


Fig.  16.— CORNELL  PRIMARY  SETTEE  AND  BOOK  REST. 

In  a  majority  of  the  country  schools  the  only  seats  used 
are  wooden  benches  with  flat  surfaces  and  straight  backs. 


Pig.  17.— NEW  AMERICAN  SCHOOL  DESK  AND  SETTEE. 

They  are  furnished  because  they  are  cheap.     No  thought 
is  given  to  the  constant  weariness  and  discomfort  of  the 


INTERNAL    ARRANGEMENTS.  29 

pupils  who  occupy  them,  nor  to  the  annoyance  which  the 
uneasiness  engendered  occasions  to  the  teacher  and  school. 
Yet  no  principle  is  more  firmly  established  than  that 
physical  comfort  is  a  necessary  condition  to  the  highest 
state  of  mental  and  moral  improvement.  The  details  of 
the  form,  size,  and  structure  of  seats  and  desks  is  given  in 
the  chapter  on  school  furniture. 

Many  methods  for  seating  school-houses  have  been  pro- 
posed, and  many  experiments  have  been  made  to  econo- 
mize room  and  to  secure  the  greatest  convenience.  It 
now  seems  to  be  generally  conceded  that  the  best  arrange- 
ment is  that  of  single  or  double  desks,  placed  in  parallel 
rows,  with  aisles  between  of  sufficient  width  to  permit 
passage.  By  this  plan  the  pupils  all  face  one  way,  and 
the  teacher  can  see  them  all  at  a  glance.  When  the  seats 
are  arranged  upon  the  sides  of  the  room,  with  the  open 
space  in  the  centre,  this  is  impossible,  and  discipline  is 
almost  out  of  question.  Double  desks  are  more  econom- 
ical than  single  ones,  as  they  cost  less  and  take  up  less 
space  in  the  room. 

The  desks  should  always  be  placed  so  that  the  pupils 
may  face  the  entrance.  The  reasons  for  this  arrangement 
are  obvious.  The  en- 
trance and  exit  of  pupils 
or  visitors  will  be  sure  to 
attract  attention,  and  it 
is  impossible  to  prevent 
this  by  any  proper  sys- 
tem of  discipline.  If  the 
backs  of  the  pupils  are 
toward  the  entrance,  they 
will  turn  about  whenever 

the  door    Opens  Or  Closes,         Fig.  IS.-NEW  AMERICAN  SETTEE  (FOLDING). 

presenting  an  unseemly  appearance,  as  well  as  seriously 


30 


OUR   SCHOOL-HOUSES. 


interfering  with  study  and  recitation.  This  habit  of  turn- 
ing once  formed,  will  be  practiced  upon  other  occasions, 
to  the  great  annoyance  of  the  teacher  and  the  subversion 
of  discipline.  Again,  when  strangers  or  others  visit  the 
school,  or  call  at  the  school-room  for  any  purpose,  the 
teacher  is  obliged  to  receive  them  at  the  rear  end  of  the 
room,  instead  of  the  front,  which  is  awkward  and  incon- 
venient. It  is  as  though  the  entrance  to  the  parlor  of  a 
dwelling  should  be  made  through  the  kitchen.  With  the 
pupils  facing  the  entrance,  when  the 
doors  open,  a  glance  is  sufficient,  with- 
out a  change  of  posture  or  suspension 
of  business,  to  satisfy  the  most  vagrant 
curiosity.  The  teacher  can  receive  his 
visitors  at  once,  and  in  the  proper  place, 
without  parade  and  without  difficulty. 
Finally,  the  door  or  doors  leading  to  the 
wood-house  or  back  yard  should  be  in 
the  rear  of  the  room,  and  this  can  only 
be  when  the  front  of  the  room  is  next 
Fig-19-  to  the  front  entrance. 

SIDE  ROOMS. — In  every  school-house  there  should  be  a 
separate  room  for  depositing  hats,  cloaks,  etc.,  and  in 
larger  houses,  another  for  library  and  ap- 
paratus.     For  the  sake  of  economy  and 
convenience,  in  the  plans  here  given,  the 
porch  has  been  so  arranged  as  to  serve  the 
double  purpose  of  entry-way  and  clothes- 
room.    In  the  smaller  houses  a  single  porch 
will  be  sufficient ;  but  in  the  larger  ones  a 
double  porch  should  be  provided,  so  that 
there  may  be  ample  room  for  the  uses  to 
which  it  is  to  be  put,  and  a  complete  separation  of  the 
sexes,     These  rooms  should  be  well  provided  with  hooks 


INTERNAL   ARRANGEMENTS.  31 

and  shelves.  In  the  smaller  houses  a  case  for  books  and 
apparatus,  answering  every  purpose,  can  be  constructed 
upon  one  side  of  the  school-room,  in  the  place  designated 
in  the  plans.  In  houses  designed  to  accommodate  more 
pupils  than  any  one  teacher  can  instruct,  an  additional 
room  for  recitation  should  be  provided.  A  separate  room 
for  the  teacher  to  occupy  during  recess  and  intermission, 
and  to  retire  to  when  wearied  and  perplexed  with  the 
cares  and  duties  of  the  day,  is  also  very  desirable  ;  but 
we  fear  this  reasonable  luxury  will  not  be  realized  until 
public  sentiment  is  made  more  liberal  in  educational  mat- 
ters. 

VENTILATION. — No  school-room  should  be  constructed 
without  ample  provision  for  the  admission  and  circulation 
of  pure  air.  This  is  habitually  neglected, 
and,  in  consequence,  the  pupils  suffer  from 
a  constant  diminution  of  their  vital  ener- 
gies as  well  as  from  positive  disease.  The 
cost  of  an  entirely  adequate  system  of  ven- 
tilation is  very  inconsiderable,  and  no  per- 
sons in  the  erection  of  school-houses  can  Fig.  21. 
afford  to  neglect  this  most  important  arrangement.  In  the 
chapter  upon  ventilation  the  whole  subject  is  discussed, 
and  directions  are  given  in  detail  for  ventilation  under  all 
circumstances. 

SPACES. — Pupils  should  not  be  crowded  too  much  to- 
gether, and  so  ample  spaces  are  necessary  in  the  school- 
room. The  appearance  of  the  room  is  greatly  improved 
by  wide  spaces,  and  the  health  of  the  pupils  is  promoted 
by  the  greater  supply  of  air.  Roominess  is  also  a  neces- 
sary condition  of  quietude  and  orderly  industry.  The 
space  in  front  of  the  desks  should  be  sufficiently  large  for 
purposes  of  recitation  ;  not  less  than  ten  or  twelve  feet  in 
the  smallest  rooms. 


^>          Of 

HNIVE 


OUR   SCHOOL-HOUSES. 

A  space  of  two  or  three  feet  should  be  left  in  the  rear 
of  the  room  for  convenience  of  passage  and  for  classes 
upon  special  occasions.  The  side  aisles  should  be  three 
or  four  feet  wide  ;  those  between  the  rows  of  desks  might 
vary  from  one  and  a  half  to  two  and  a  half  feet. 

CLEANLINESS. — It  scarcely  comes  within  the  province  of 
this  work  to  descant  upon  the  importance  to  health  of  keep- 
ing the  person  and  clothing  clean  j  yet  it  is  a  subject  inti- 
mately connected  with  that  of  the  wholesome  ordering  of 


Fig.  22.— TEACHER'S  DESK. 

the  school-room.  As  health  cannot  be  preserved  without 
habits  of  personal  neatness,  so  it  is  useless  to  inculcate 
these  upon  pupils  while  the  dirty  condition  of  the  rooms 
which  they  are  obliged  to  occupy  forbids  the  acquisition 
or  preservation  of  those  habits.  Besides,  the  fine  dust 
which  accumulates  in  'a  school-room,  and  which  is  thrown 
into  the  air  by  every  motion,  is  breathed  into  the  lungs, 
and  there  acts  mechanically  upon  the  delicate  little  air- 
cells,  producing  irritation,  which  may  end  in  inflammation 
and  consumption. 


INTERNAL    ARRANGEMENTS. 


33 


In  the  construction  of  the  school-room,  cleanliness 
should  be  kept  constantly  in  view.  The  floor  should  be 
well  planed,  smoothed,  and  matched,  and  carefully  nailed. 
The  blackboards  should  be  provided  with  ample  troughs 
to  catch  the  chalk-dust.  The  desks  and  seats  should  be 
so  constructed  as  to  permit  the  floor  to  be  easily  swept 
and  washed.  The  teacher's  desk  should  be  movable, 
while  the  recitation  settees  and  extra  seats  for  visitors 
should  be  movable  or  folding,  for  the  same  reason.  Spe- 
cial apparatus  for  preserving  cleanliness  will  be  noticed 
in  subsequent  chapters. 


Fig.  23.— THE  NEW  AMERICAN  FOLDING  SETTEE. 

MISCELLANEOUS  SUGGESTIONS. — The  methods  of  ventila- 
tion recommended  require  the  stoves  to  be  placed  in  the 
front  part  of  the  room,  and  near  the  corners.  The  front, 
sides,  and  back  of  the  room  should  be  occupied  by  black- 
boards or  black-walls.  There  is  little  danger  of  too  much 
blackboard  space.  If  a  platform  is  used  it  should  not  be 
more  than  six  or  eight  inches  in  height.  In  school-houses 
with  a  single  room,  an  unbroken  level  floor  is  much  bet- 
ter than  any  platform,  as  it  allows  a  greater  freedom  of 
movement,  and  a  greater  amount  of  air  in  the  room. 

3 


CHAPTER  IV. 


LIGHT. 

Too  little  attention  is  given  to  admitting  light  into 
school-rooms.  Windows  are  placed  to  be  out  of  the  way 
of  the  furniture,  and  at  the  conventional 
distance  apart  ;  but  the  thought  that  the 
admission  of  light  exerts  an  important  influ- 
ence upon  the  health  and  comfort  of  pupils 
seems  rarely  to  occur  to  the  builders  of 
school-houses. 

In  Germany,  late  scientific  investigation 
has  proved  that  a  large  proportion  of  the 
pupils  of  the  intermediate  and  advanced 
Fig.  24.  schools  have  defective  sight.  In  this  coun- 
try the  same  fact  has  been  noticed.  While  this  may  be 
attributed  in  part  to  improper  postures  and  the  small  type 
of  books,  much  the  greater  part  is  the  direct  result  of 
mismanagement  in  the  admission  of  light. 

DEFECTS  OF  PRESENT  SYSTEMS. — In  cities 
it  often  happens  that  school-houses  are  so 
shut  in  by  other  buildings  that  it  is  impos- 
sible to  obtain  sufficient  light.  In  country 
places  there  is  a  want  of  light  through 
negligence.  In  rooms  dimly  lighted  the 
eye  is  unnaturally  strained  in  endeavoring 
•Fig.  25.  to  rea(j  or  to  observe  minute  objects.  In- 

flammation of  the  eyes,  or  near-sightedness,  is  often  the 
result.     Another  defect  is  a  glare  of  light   that   strikes 


LIGHT.  35 

directly  into  the  eyes.  Still  another  is  the  arrangement 
which  produces  cross-lights.  Curtains,  shades,  and  blinds 
are  often  omitted,  so  that  there  is  no  way  to  control  the 
light.  Windows  are  sometimes  improperly  constructed 
by  being  placed  too  low,  so  that  the  light  comes  in  nearly 
on  a  level  with  the  pupil ;  and  sometimes  they  are  too 
small.  These  defects  can  all  be  easily  obviated. 

Much  has  been  said  and  written  about  the  superiority 
of  the  north  light  and  the  skylight,  and  school-houses  have 
sometimes  been  built  so  as  to  make  use  of  light  from  these 
directions  exclusively.  But  the  wisdom  of  this  course  is 
seriously  called  in  question.  The  north  light  is  the  most 
unvarying  of  all  side  lights,  and  the  skylight  is  the  strong- 
est of  all  applications  of  light  to  interiors  ;  but  both  ex- 
clude the  direct  rays  of  the  sun.  Sunshine  is  as  necessary 
to  health  as  air,  arid  besides,  it  has  a  direct  effect  upon  the 
nervous  system,  allaying  irritability,  and  diffusing  a  happy 
spirit  through  the  school,  when  its  summer  intensity  is 
properly  subdued  by  blinds  or  curtains. 

PROPER  ARRANGEMENT  OF  LIGHT. — Windows  should 
never  be  so  placed  that  pupils  will  be  compelled  to  sit 
with  their  faces  to  them.  It  makes  an 
unpleasant  glare  of  light,  and  sometimes 
induces  ''squint  eyes."  Windows  should 
not  be  placed  on  two  sides  of  a  room,  at 
right  angles  with  each  other,  producing 
''cross-lights."  The  effect  upon  the  eye 
is  exceedingly  unpleasant.  When  the  Fig- 26* 

muscles  and  lenses  of  the  eye  are  adjusted  for  one  light, 
they  are  out  of  focus  for  the  other,  and  the  eye  becomes 
wearied  and  pained  in  its  vain  efforts  to  be  in  harmony 
with  the  two  lights. 

HEIGHT  OF  WINDOWS. — Windows  should  always  extend 
upward  as  far  as  is  consistent  with  the  proportions  of  the 


36 


OUR   SCHOOL-HOUSES. 


room,  so  that  the  light  may  come  partially  from  above. 
They  should  be  large  enough  in  the  aggregate  to  afford 
sufficient  light  in  the  darkest  days,  and  then 
the  light  may  be  modified  to  suit  the  bright 
days.  Light  may  with  propriety  be  admitted 
in  the  rear  of  the  room,  but  in  case  it  is,  it 
should  be  excluded  from  the  sides,  so  as  to 
avoid  cross  lights. 

In   the  plans   contained  in  this  work,   the 
windows  are  placed  in  the  two  opposite  sides 

of  the  room,  with  a  blank  wall  in  front  and 

Fig.  27.       rear  Of  the  pupils.     In  several  of  the  series 
of  elevations  the  windows  are  grouped  together,  so  that  a 
broad  light,  unbroken  by  shadows,  fully  illuminates  the 
interior  of  the  room.     This  arrangement  is  economical, 
affording  the  best  possible  admission  of  light,  and  at  the 
same  time  gives  opportunity  for  fine  architectural  effects. 
BLINDS. — The  windows  should  always  be  provided  with 
blinds  or  curtains.     Blinds  are  much  to  be  preferred,  and 
they  should  be  placed  inside.    Outside  blinds 
afford  but  little  protection  to  the  glass  in  any 
case,  and  none  against  malicious  injury,  while 
they  are  liable  to  be  broken  by  the  winds. 
Inside  blinds  are  less  liable  to  injury ;  they 
are  more   easily  adjusted,  and  the  light  is 
more   easily  regulated.      Window   sills   are 
sometimes   placed   so   high   as   to  be  a  de- 
Fig.  23.        formity  to  the  building.      This  may  be  in- 
tended to  prevent  pupils  from  looking  out  of  the  windows  ; 
but  the  real  effect  is  to  court  the  very  evil 
which  is  sought  to  be  avoided.     School- 
boys arid  girls  are  bound  to  surmount  all 
a  physical  obstacles  put  in  the  way  of  their 
rig.  29.  enjoyment  of  the  largest  liberty.     The 


LIGHT.  37 

vagrant  gaze  and  curiosity  of  pupils  can  be  much  more 
easily  restrained  when  the  windows  are  placed  in  their 

proper  places. 

In  the  construction  of  windows,  large  panes  of  glass 
should  be  used  rather  than  small,  as  the  light  is  more 
uniform  and  unbroken.  Select  a  good  quality  of  glass, 
free  from  waves  and  imperfections. 

The  window  is  one  of  the  most  noticeable  and  effective 
of  the  architectural  features  of  a  building.  It  has  about 
the  same  relation  to  the  structure  of  which  it  forms  a 
part,  that  the  eye  has  to  the  human  countenance.  It  can 
be  made  a  perpetual  deformity,  or  it  can  give  beauty  and 
expression  to  the  whole  building.  Due  attention  should 
therefore  be  given  to  the  form,  the  finish,  and  the  situa- 
tion of  the  windows,  to  the  end  that  their  appearance 
may  be  a  source  of  continuous  pleasure,  and  a  contribu- 
tion to  the  educational  resources  of  the  school.  In  the 
designs  given  in  this  work,  the  importance  of  windows  in 
producing  fine  architectural '  effects  has  been  fully  con- 
sidered, and  an  effort  has  been  made  to  give  suitable  and 
satisfactory  forms,  and,  at  the  same  time,  those  that  are 
simple  and  inexpensive. 


Fig.  30. 


CHAPTER  V. 

HEATING    AND    VENTILATION. 

IN  devising  methods  for  heating  and  ventilating  rooms, 
three  problems  are  presented,  each  of  which  must  be 
satisfactorily  solved  before  any  system  can 
be  successful.  These  are  economy  in  the  use 
of  fuel,  equal  distribution  of  heat  through 
the  room,  and  a  plentiful  supply  of  pure 
and  properly  tempered  air.  To  solve  these 
problems  many  costly  experiments  have  been 
made,  and  a  great  variety,  of  ingenious  apparatus  has 
been  invented.  Many  of  the  systems  which  have  been 
put  in  use  have  their  good  points,  though  none  of  them 
have  come  fully  up  to  the  required  conditions  ;  and  nearly 
all  of  those  are  too  costly  for  adoption  in  common  schools. 
Before  entering  upon  a  detailed  examination  of  the 
various  methods  of  heating  and  ventilation  now  in  use, 
we  will  discuss  the  necessity  of  ventilation,  with  the 
principles  upon  which  it  is  founded  ;  and  the  nature  of 
heat,  with  the  laws  of  its  transmission. 

COMPOSITION  OF  AIR. — Pure  air  contains  79  parts  nitro- 
gen, 21  parts  oxygen,  .0005  parts  carbonic  acid  gas,  and 
a  variable  quantity  of  water.  The  proportion  of  the  con- 
stituent gases  is  very  nearly  uniform  all  over  the  world. 
Oxygen  is  the  life-sustaining  principle,  while  nitrogen 
seems  to  be  merely  a  dilutent  to  render  oxygen  less 
active.  Carbonic  acid  gas  sustains  vegetation,  but  de- 


HEATING    AND    VENTILATION.  39 

stroys  animal  life.  The  small  amount  found  in  the  atmos- 
phere is  not  dangerous  j  but  when  the  proportion  is  sen- 
sibly increased,  man  and  the  higher 
animals  are  injuriously  affected. 

SOURCES  OF  CARBONIC  ACID. — Car- 
bonic acid  gas  is  chiefly  produced  by 
combustion  and  by  the  breathing  of 
animals.  From  these  two  sources  thou- 
sands of  tons  of  this  deleterious  gas  are 
thrown  out  daily  into  the  atmosphere 
in  each  of  our  great  cities.  But  the 
currents  which  are  constantly  sweeping 
through  this  vast  atmospheric  ocean 
dissipate  the  poison  as  fast  as  it  is  Fig.  32. 

generated,  rendering   it   impossible  for  carbonic  acid  to 
accumulate  to  any  considerable  extent.* 

When  air  is  confined  in  rooms  where  combustion  and 
breathing  is  going  on,  carbonic  acid  gas  rapidly  accumu- 
lates, and  means  must  be  devised  for  carrying  it  off,  or 
the  air  is  soon  rendered  unlit  to  sustain  anynal  life. 

SOURCE  OF  OTHER  IMPURITIES. — Besides  the  carbonic 
acid  a  large  quantity  of  effete  matter  is  thrown  off 
through  the  skin  by  insensible  perspiration.  The  aver- 
age amount  of  this  decayed  animal  substance  is  about 
twenty  ounces  per  day  from  each  adult.  When  a  num- 
ber of  persons  are  confined  within  a  room,  this  becomes  a 
fruitful  source  of  impurity  in  the  air.  If  not  removed  this 

*  In  the  city  of  Manchester,  England,  where  more  than  two  mil- 
lions of  tons  of  coal  are  consumed  annually,  and  where  the  smoke 
hangs  like  a  dark  cloud  over  the  city  and  adjacent  country,  the  air 
was  analyzed  twenty-eight  different  times,  and  the  greatest  amount 
of  carbonic  acid  found  was  respectively  .0015,  .0012,  and  .0010; 
while  the  average  was  about  .0007,  or  but  little  more-  than  the  aver- 
age of  the  entire  atmosphere. 


40  OUR   SCHOOL-HOUSES. 

animal  excretion  is  taken  into  the  system  through  the 
lungs,  producing  disease.  It  is  absorbed  into  the  walls 
and  ceiling  of  the  room,  whence  it  is  given  back  to  the 
air,  causing  the  offensive  odors  so  prevalent  in  ill  ven- 
tilated apartments,  even  when  not  occupied. 

AMOUNT  OF  Am  NECESSARY. — It  is  stated  upon  the 
highest  authority,  that  in  breathing,  an  adult  destroys  the 
vitality  of  eight  cubic  feet  of  air  every  minute.  In  a 
school-room  twenty  by  thirty,  and  ten  feet  high,  forty 
pupils  would  render  the  six  thousand  cubic  feet  of  air 
unfit  to  breathe  in  less  than  half  an  hour.  The  only  rea- 
son why  life  is  not  destroyed  in  many  of  our  school-houses 
is,  that  the  buildings  are  so  loosely  constructed  that  there 
is  constantly  a  kind  of  circulation  of  air.  In  a  tight 
room,  however,  the  air  frequently  becomes  so  poisonous 
that  the  pupils  suffer  both  from  a  diminution  of  power  and 
ability  to  work,  and  from  positive  disease. 

VENTILATION  INDISPENSABLE. — Frequent  changes  of 
air  cannot  be  neglected  with  impunity.  It  is  estimated  by 
.,  those  who  have  given  the  subject  most 
attention,  that  more  than  one-half  of  the 
diseases  that  afflict  the  human  race  can  be 
Fig'  *•  directly  traced  to  the  breathing  of  foul  air. 
Proper  attention  to  ventilation  will  go  far  to  secure  good 
health,  while  neglect  will  certainly  produce  disease  to  a 
greater  or  less  extent.  In  the  more  modern  treatment 
of  disease,  pure  air  is  considered  one  of  the  most  potent 
of  the  remedial  agents  ;  and  the  ravages  of  contagious 
diseases  have  been  arrested  by  supplying  it  in  unlimited 
quantities.* 


*  "  One  of  the  most  striking  illustrations  of  this,  and  perhaps  one 
of  the  most  wonderful  cures  of  the  cholera  on  record,  was  that  of  the 
New  York  workhouse,  on  Blackwell's  Island.  It  lasted  only  nine 


HEATING   AND   VENTILATION.  41 

EESPONSIBILITY  FOR  NEGLECT. — In  the  construction  of 
every  school-house  where  ventilation  is  neglected,  some- 
body is  responsible  for  the  vile  odors  which  pervade  the 
room  ;  for  the  restlessness  and  nervous  irritability  of  both 
teachers  and  pupils  ;  for  the  headaches,  bronchitis,  and 
weak  lungs  so  prevalent ;  for  the  sluggish  vital  action 
which  robs  the  pupils  of  half  their  mental  activity  ;  and 
for  the  weariness  and  exhaustion  of  all  the  members  of  the 
school  during  the  latter  half  of  each  day. 

Before  entering  upon  the  subject  of  securing  the  sim- 
plest and  most  economic  ventilation,  it  will  be  necessary 
to  consider  the  nature  of  heat  and  its  effect  upon  air. 

EADIATION  OF  HEAT. — By  radiation  heat  passes  out- 
ward from  a  heated  body  in  all  directions.  The  intensity 
of  radiated  heat  is  inversely  as  the  square  of  the  distance 
traversed.  Eacliated  heat  does  not  raise  the  temperature 
of  the  air  through  which  it  passes.  This  is  shown  by  the 


days,  but  in  that  brief  period  one  hundred  and  twenty  out  of  eight 
hundred  inmates  died.  I  visited  the  building  with  Dr.  Hamilton 
on  the  third  day  after  its  appearance,  but  the  hospital  then  con- 
tained sixty  or  seventy  patients,  and  some  twenty-five  or  thirty  had 
died  within  twenty-four  hours.  Dr.  Hamilton  attributed  the  rapid 
propagation  and  fatality  of  the  disease,  after  it  once  had  gained  ad- 
mission, mainly  to  confinement  and  crowding.  It  was  observed  that 
the  cholera  was  confined  for  several  days  among  the  women,  who  had 
the  smallest  apartments,  and  were  most  crowded  in  their  cells,  while 
the  men  were  mostly  employed  out  of  doors. 

"  The  Doctor's  prescription  was  very  short  and  simple.  A  slight 
change  was  made  in  the  diet,  disinfectants  were  used,  and  at  night 
a  slight  stimulant  was  given  to  each  patient.  But  the  great  means 
that  the  Doctor  relied  upon  for  success  was  pure  air  all  the  time. 
The  patients  were  kept  out  of  doors  from  morning  till  night,  and  all 
the  windows  were  kept  open  day  and  night.  Although  in  the  hot 
weather  of  summer,  fire  was  made  in  the  wards  to  insure  a  more 
perfect  ventilation.  In  six  days  after  the  initiation  of  these  simple 
hygienic  measures  the  epidemic  entirely  disappeared."  L.  W.  LEEDS. 


42  OUR   SCHOOL-HOUSES. 

fact  that  the  upper  atmosphere  is  much  colder  than  the 
.stratum  of  air  in  immediate  contact  with  the  earth,  whereas 
it  would  be  warmer  as  we  go  toward  the  sun  if  the  air 
was  heated  by  radiation. 

CONDUCTION  OF  HEAT. —  By  conduction  heat  is  trans- 
mitted from  a  heated  body  to  substances  in  immediate 
contact  with  it,  which  in  turn  transmit  it  to  others,  and 
so  on,  the  intensity  constantly  diminishing  as  it  passes 
away  from  the  centre  of  action.  Different  bodies  have 
the  power  of  conducting  heat  in  different  degrees.  Iron 
and  the  metals  generally  are  good  conductors,  and  clay, 
water,  wood,  and  air  are  poor  conductors.  A  good  con- 
ductor both  receives  and  gives  off  heat  much  more  rapidly 
than  a  poor  conductor.  In  the  construction  of  the  outward 
walls  of  buildings,  a  poor  conductor  of  heat  should  always 
be  used,  to  avoid  the  otherwise  inevitable  loss  of  heat. 

CAPACITY  OF  BODIES  TO  RECEIVE  HEAT. — The  capacity 
of  bodies  to  receive  heat  greatly  varies.  To  raise  a  cubic 
foot  of  water  to  a  given  temperature  requires  seventeen 
hundred  times  the  amount  of  heat  that  it  does  to  raise  a 
cubic  foot  of  air  to  the  same  temperature.  The  capacity 
of  air  to  receive  heat  is  relatively  small,  and  hence  there 
is  little  loss  of  heat  from  a  perfect  system  of  ventilation. 

How  AIR  is  HEATED. — Air  is  heated  by  being  brought  into 
immediate  contact  with  a  heated  surface.  The  air  of  a  room 
is  heated  in  part  by  contact  with  the  heating  apparatus, 
and  in  part  by  contact  with  the  walls,  floor,  and  ceiling  of 
the  room.  The  parts  of  the  room  and  the  furniture  are 
heated  by  direct  radiation  from  the  heating  apparatus. 

EFFECT  OF  HEAT  UPON  AIR. — Air,  when  heated,  expands 
and  becomes  lighter.  Owing  to  the  derangement  of  equi- 
librium, the  cooler  and  heavier  air  sinks  and  forces  the 
warmer  and  lighter  air  upward.  Whenever  heat  is 
more  developed  in  one  place  than  another,  currents  of  air 


HEATING    AND    VENTILATION.  43 

are  always  produced,  and  heat  is  distributed  by  this  pro- 
cess, which  is  technically  called  CONVECTION. 

MOVEMENT  OF  AIR  IN  A  ROOM. — When  confined  in  a 
room  the  cold  air  sinks  to  the  bottom,  and  the  warm  air 
rises  to  the  top.  If  the  room  is  perfectly  tight,  and  a 
small  opening  is  made  in  either  the  top  or  bottom,  no 
change  takes  place  within  the  room,  as  there  is  no  force 
to  establish  motion.  If  an  opening  is  made  in  both  the 
top  and  the  bottom,  the  cold  air  flows  in  below  and  the 
warm  air  escapes  above.  If  two  openings  are  made 
above,  or  a  single  flue  is  divided  into  two  parts,  there  will 
be  an  ascending  current  in  one  and  a  descending  current 
in  the  other. 

IMPURITIES  IN  A  ROOM. — Carbonic  acid  gas  is  heavier 
than  air,  and  when  generated  in  considerable  quantities 
at  the  same  temperature  of  the  air,  it  first  sinks  downward, 
but  in  a  short  time  it  becomes  diffused  through  the  air. 

In  a  room  at  the  temperature  of  70°  the  carbonic  acid 
of  the  breath  at  the  temperature  of  about  90°  rises,  but, 
speedily  giving  off  its  extra  heat,  sinks  again  and  accu- 
mulates at  the  floor.  The  carbonic  acid  generated  by  the 
burning  of  lamps,  first  rises  to  the  top  of  the  room,  but 
the  heat  which  carries  it  upward  soon  dissipates,  and  it 
then  sinks  downward.  When  air  colder  than  the  tem- 
perature of  the  room  is  admitted,  it  sinks  to  the  floor,  and 
the  vitiated  air  lies  in  the  stratum  immediately  above. 
But  the  tendency  of  gases  is  toward  diffusion,  and  we  may 
safely  state  that  in  rooms  occupied  by  a  large  number  of 
persons,  the  vitiated  air  will  either  be  found  well  distrib- 
uted through  the  room,  or  accumulated  at  the  bottom. 
With  these  facts  and  principles  before  us,  we  are  prepared 
to  examine  the  different  methods  of  heating  and  ventila- 
tion, and  determine  how  far  each  goes  to  the  solution  of 
the  problems  which  we  named. 


44 


OUR    SCHOOL-HOUSES. 


FIRE-PLACES. — With  the  open  fire-place  a  current  of 
air  is  always  setting  in  toward  the  fire,  making  the  ven- 
tilation very  nearly  perfect.  The  heat,  however,  is  trans- 
mitted by  radiation,  and  hence  is  unevenly  distributed, 
and  the  current  of  hot  air  which  constantly  ascends 
through  the  chimney  causes  a  great  waste  of  heat. 

STOVES. — By  the  use  of  stoves  we  have  a  greater  econ- 
omy of  fuel,  but  the  heat  is  still  radiated,  and  consequently 
unevenly  distributed,  and  there  is  no  ven- 
tilation connected  with  the  process  of  heat- 
ing, except  the  very  small  current  escaping 
through  the  draft  of  the  stove. 

When  stoves  are  used  ventilation  is 
sought  to  be  accomplished  in  a  great  variety 
of  independent  methods. 

WINDOWS. — When  windows  are  opened 
at  the  top  for  the  admission  of  air,  a  cold 
current  immediately  flows  in,  which  settles 
to  the  bottom  of  the  room,  where  it  serves 
Fig.  35.         ^0  keep  the  fee{;  Of  the  pupils  uncomfortably 

cold.     On  its  way  it  strikes  the  unprotected  necks  and 
shoulders  of  the  pupils  who  are  seated  near,  causing  colds 
in  the  head,  rheumatic  pains,  and  other 
forms  of  disease.     The  danger  of  sitting  in 
draughts   is   abundantly  set   forth  in  the 
most  elementary  treatises   upon  hygienic 
p.    ^  science,  and  yet,  to  this  day,  people  are 

found  who  contend  that  ventilation  is  suf- 
ficiently secured  by  the  abominable  practice  of  opening 
windows  from  the  top.* 


*  Windows  may  be  opened  from  the  top  just  sufficient  to  allow  the 
escape  of  hot  air,  but  not  to  admit  cold  air,  while  pupils  are  exposed 
to  the  draught.  While  the  children  are  seated  care  should  be  taken 


HEATING    AND    VENTILATION.  45 

OPENING  IN  THE  CEILING. — A  second  method  of  inde- 
pendent ventilation  is  by  having  an  opening  in  the  ceiling. 
When  the  opening  is  merely  into  a  room 
above,  no  currents  are  created  and  no  ven- 
tilation is  induced.  But  when  the  outlet  is 
through  a  flue  directly  into  the  outer  air,  the  "'  Fig.  37. 
hot  air  at  the  top  of  the  room  is  drawn  off,  and  the  equally 
foul  air  below  remains.  This  method  changes  the  air  but 
little,  and  causes  great  waste  of  heat. 

DOUBLE  OPENINGS  IN  THE  CEILING. — A  more  modern 
method  of  ventilation  is  to  provide  two  separate  flues 
from  the  ceiling,  or  to  divide  a  single  ventilating  chimney 
kito  several  parts.  It  is  found  that  generally,  while  there 
is  an  ascending  current  through  the  one,  there  will  be  a  de- 
scending current  through  another,  causing  a  change  of  air 
throughout  the  room.  This  will  always  be  the  case  when 
the  room  is  perfectly  tight,  but  when  a  door  or  window  is 
opened  the  descending  current  at  once  ceases,  while  the 
hot  air  continues  to  escape.  There  is  the  same  objection 
to  this  method  of  admitting  cold  air  as  to  windows  opened 
at  the  top,  exposing  pupils  to  draughts  and  to  cold  feet, 
and  at  the  same  time  there  is  a  great  loss  of  heat. 

These  plans  for  the  change  of  air  in  a  room  are  all  faulty, 
and  so  far  stoves  and  good  ventilation  seem  inconsistent 
with  each  other. 

HOT-AIR  FURNACES. — The  most  philosophic  apparatus 
for  heating  which  has  yet  been  invented  is  probably  the 
hot-air  furnace.  By  its  use  the  air  is  properly  tempered 
before  being  admitted  to  the  room,  and  cold  draughts  are 
rendered  impossible.  If  adjusted  so  as  to  secure  proper 


to  open  the  windows  opposite  the  wind  only.  The  windows  may 
be  opened  at  both  the  top  and  bottom  at  recess,  and  while  the  pupils 
are  engaged  in  physical  exercise. 


46  OUR    SCHOOL-HOUSES. 

distribution  and  an  economic  method  of  ventilation,  it 
comes  nearer  to  solving  our  three  problems  than  any 
other. 

MISTAKES  IN  ARRANGEMENT. — In  the  construction  of 
the  hot-air  apparatus  many  amusing  mistakes  have  been 
made.  The  cold-air  box  sometimes  has  been  entirely 
omitted,  and  registers  for  the  admission  of  hot  air  have 
been  placed  in*  the  top  of  the  room,  or  half-way  down, 
instead  of  at  the  bottom,  where  they  belong.  The  venti- 
lating flues  have  sometimes  been  entirely  omitted,  and 
have  sometimes  been  placed  at  the  top  of  the  room,  when 
they  served  the  purpose  only  of  carrying  off  the  hot 
air,  and  so  wasting  heat.  The  ventilating  flue,  when  in 
its  proper  position  at  the  bottom  of  the  room,  has  often 
been  placed  so  near  the  hot-air  register  that  a  limited 
circulation  only  was  produced,  and  the  heat  was  far  from 
being  evenly  distributed. 

THE  BEST  ARRANGEMENT. — From  these  mistakes,  and 
a  very  long  series  of  experiments,  a  most  excellent  ar- 
rangement has  been  devised.  The  hot  air  is  admitted 
at  the  bottom  of  the  room,  and  the  ventilating  registers 
are  placed  at  the  farthest  distance  from  the  hot-air  regis- 
ters also,  and  at  the  bottom  of  the  room. 

The  flues  from  the  ventilating  registers  are  made  to  con- 
nect with  the  draught  of  the  furnace,  and  the  circulation 
is  thus  made  complete.  Hot-air  furnaces,  however,  arc 
too  costly  for  use  in  common  schools,  and  it  remains  for 
us  to  devise  a  system  which  shall  be  inexpensive  and  at 
the  same  time  shall  have  all  the  excellences  of  the  costly 
apparatus  described.  The  details  of  the  plan  are  as 
follows  : 

CHIMNEYS  AND  FLUES. — In  rooms  of  considerable  size, 
chimneys  should  be  built  in  each  of  the  front  corners, 
commencing  at  the  foundation.  In  smaller  rooms  a 


HEATING    AND    VENTILATION.  49 

single  chimney  is  sufficient.  They  are  placed  in  front 
to  avoid  the  long  stove-pipe  which  otherwise  would  be 
necessary.  These  long  pipes  are  disagreeable  from  the 
radiation  of  heat  downward  upon  the  heads  of  the  pupils, 
and  from  their  tendency  to  smoke,  drip,  and 
get  out  of  place.  Each  chimney  should  have 
two  flues,  separated  by  the  thinnest  possible 
partition  :  one  for  smoke  and  the  other  for 
ventilation.  The  results  sought  by  this  ar- 
rangement can  be  effectively  attained  by  hav- 
ing a  pipe  for  the  smoke  carried  up  through 
the  centre  of  the  flue  which  is  used  for  ven- 
tilation. From  the  ventilating  flue  of  the  chim- 
neys air-tight  horizontal  tubes  should  be  laid  under  the 
floor  to  the  opposite  sides  of  the  room,  terminating  in 
registers  opening  through  the*  floor  or  base-board. 

STOVES. — The  stoves  used  may  be  ordinary  box  stoves 
for  wood,  or  upright  cylinders  for  coal.  When  coal  is 
used,  the  self-feeding  stove  should  be  obtained  if  possible. 
The  stoves  should  be  placed  in  the  corners  of  the  room, 
where  they  are  most  out  of  the  way,  and  each  one  should 
be  inclosed  by  a  double  case  or  jacket  of  sheet-iron,  or 
some  other  material  of  like  character,  for  the  double  pur- 
pose of  preventing  the  intense  primary  radiation,  and  for 
providing  space  for  the  heating  of  air.  A  cold-air  tube 
extending  from  the  side  of  the  building  should  be  laid 
under  the  floor,  and  open  directly  beneath  the  stove.* 


*  A  convenient  and  economic  method  of  admitting  cold  air  would 
be  to  place  a  partition  or  floor  in  the  smoke  flue  of  the  chimney  a 
little  below  the  opening  for  the  stove-pipe;  make  an  opening  from 
the  outside  into  the  flue  below  the  partition ;  and  to  connect  the  flue 
below  with  the  cold-air  tube  opening  beneath  the  stove.  This 
arrangement  will  secure  a  constant  supply  of  air  taken  so  far  above 

4 


50  OUR   SCHOOL-HOUSES. 

OPERATION  OF  THE  STOVE  AND  CHIMNEY. — When  a  fire 
is  kindled  in  the  stove,  the  heat  escaping  from  the  chim- 
ney raises  the  temperature  in  the  adjacent 
ventilating  flue  and  establishes  a  current 
upward.  This  causes  a  draught  which  acts 
upon  the  air  of  the  room  through  the  regis- 
ters at  the  extremity  of  the  ventilating  tube, 
pumping  the  cold  air  from  the  bottom  of  the 

Fig.  39.  room> 

OPERATION  OF  THE  HOT  AIR. — The  fire  in  the  stove 
heats  the  stratum  of  air  which  surrounds  it,  and  a  hot 
current  is  produced,  which  enters  the  room  next  the  floor, 
from  between  the  outer  and  inner  coats  of  the  jacket, 
serving  to  keep  .the  floor  warm  in  the  immediate  vicinity, 
and  affording  a  convenient  place  for  warming  feet.  The 
hot  air  then  rises  to  the  top  of  the  room,  where  it  accumu- 
lates, and  pressing  downward  upon  the  cold  air,  forces  it 
out  through  the  registers,  thus  directly  aiding  the  draught 
of  the  ventilating  flues. 

PERFECTIONS  OF  ACTION. — The  pure  air,  heated  and 
properly  tempered,  soon  has  entire  possession  of  the 
room.  The  ventilating  registers  attract  it  to  the  farthest 
part  of  the  room,  and  the  heat  is  evenly  distributed.  No 
warm  air  can  escape  from  the  room  while  there  is  any 
cold  air  in  it,  and  so,  no  heat  is  wasted.  The  currents 
through  the  room  are  continuous,  and  the  foul  air  is  car- 
ried off  as  fast  as  generated.  The  whole  system  is  brought 
directly  under  control  by  having  adjustable  registers  at 
the  opening  into  the  ventilating  tubes  and  in  the  cold-air 
tubes,  and  by  proper  dampers  in  the  stove. 

MOISTURE. — If  the   air   is   found   too   dry  when,  it   is 

the  surface  as  to  be  free  from  the  impurities  which  often  emanate 
from  the  ground. 


HEATING    AND    VENTILATION.  51 

admitted  into  the  room,  it  may  be  properly  tempered 
with  moisture  by  having  a  basin  of  water  placed  beneath 
the  jacket  in  such  a  manner  that  it  can  be  filled  from  the 
outside.  Great  care  should  be  taken  that  both  the  basin 
and  the  water  are  always  clean. 

CONCLUSION. — It  is  believed  that  the  system  of  heating 
and  ventilation  here  described  fully  meets  the  require- 
ments demanded  in  the  outset.  The  apparatus  costs  but 
little  more  than  that  in  ordinary  use.  The  extra  cost  of  the 
jacket  for  the  stove,  and  of  the  ventilating  tubes,  but  a 
few  dollars  at  the  most,  will  be  more  than  saved  in  fuel  in 
a  single  winter.  The  use  of  fuel  is  more  economic  than 
that  of  the  most  approved  air-tight  stoves  ;  for  the  neces- 
sity of  opening  doors  and  windows  is  entirely  obviated. 
The  distribution  of  heat  is  as  perfect  as  that  of  the  most 
approved  hot-air  furnaces,  and  the  ventilation  as  thorough 
as  with  the  old-fashioned  fire-places.  It  has  all  the  excel- 
lences of  these  several  systems  without  their  defects. 


Pig.  40.  Fig.  41 


CHAPTER  VI. 


GENERAL    CONSTRUCTION. 

THE   terms   Building   and    Architecture,   though    often 
used  synonymously,  are  in  meaning  essentially  different. 

Building  has  reference  to  utility, 
while  architecture  aims  to  produce 
beauty.  The  object  of  building  is 
accomplished  when  the  ends  of  use- 
fulness are  attained ;  but  archi- 
tecture is  not  satisfied  until  it 
has  created  in  the  mind  emotions 
of  pleasure.  The  construction  of 
walls,  roofs,  windows,  and  all  the 
necessary  parts  of  an  edifice  is  the 
business  of  a  builder ;  the  office  of 
the  architect  is  to  dispose  and 
arrange  these  parts  in  the  most 
harmonious  and  attractive  manner. 
The  two  most  obvious  uses  in  all  buildings  designed  for 
the  occupation  of  man  are  shelter  and  warmth.  These 
conditions  are  found,  by  savage  or  barbarous  nations,  in 
natural  or  artificial  caverns,  in  hollows  of  trees,  and  in 
rude  huts  of  sticks  and  mud.  At  the  very  dawn  of  civil- 
ization the  art  of  building  began  to  receive  attention. 
Rude  at  first,  it  gradually  improved  as  the  wants  of  man 
were  developed,  until  it  has  reached  a  state  of  compara- 
tive perfection.  In  every  stage  of  its  progress,  however, 


Fig.  42. 


GENERAL   CONSTRUCTION. 


53 


shelter  and  warmth  have  been  the  principal  ends  to  be 
attained.  We  might  class  with  these  another  scarcely  less 
important,  viz.,  durability.  Hence,  the  strength  and  sta- 
bility of  walls,  the  tightness  of  roof,  and  outside  covering, 
are  matters  of  prime  interest,  and  if  neglected  in  the  out- 
set, no  subsequent  expenditure  of  skill  or  labor  can  pro- 
vide a  remedy. 

MATERIALS. — The  materials  used  should  be  excellent  in 
quality.  It  is  false  economy  that  consents,  under  any 
circumstances,  to  use  inferior  materials. 
There  may  be,  in  the  beginning,  a  small 
saving  of  cost,  but  the  result  will  be  pre- 
mature decay,  and  consequent  expense  for 
rebuilding.  The  greatest  care  should  be 
taken  to  procure  bricks  properly  burned, 
straight-grained  timber  for  frames,  sound 
roof-boards  and  siding,  floor-boards  with- 
out knots,  shingles  of  the  first  quality,  and 
fresh-burned  lime.  These  precautions  can- 
not be  tdo  strongly  urged.  A  single  stick 
of  bad  timber  will  sometimes  ruin  a  whole 
building ;  and  many  a  brick  wall  has  fallen 
in  consequence  of  using  lime  which  has  been  too  long 
exposed.  The  money  annually  expended  in  repairs  occa- 
sioned by  the  use  of  poor  materials  is  more  than  triple 
that  increase  of  the  first  cost,  which  would  have  entirely 
obviated  the  difficulty.  Every  part  of  the  materials 
should  be  carefully  examined  by  competent  persons,  and 
all,  except  the  very  best,  should  be  rejected. 

WORKMANSHIP. — -The  work  should  be  well  done.  Job- 
work,  as  it  is  usually  termed  (often  another  name  for  work 
miserably  performed),  cannot  be  too  earnestly  deprecated. 
With  the  best  of  materials  a  careless  or  unskillful  work- 
man will  construct  a  worthless  building.  Lumber  of  the 


Fi-r.  43. 


54 


OUR   SCHOOL-HOUSES. 


best  kind  maybe  worse  than  wasted  by  a  slovenly  manner 
of  framing  and  adjusting  it.     Shingles  poorly  laid  will  be 

followed  by  leaks,  which  must  seri- 
ously damage  the  plaster  and  inside 
finish.  Foundations  insecurely  built 
will  rack  and  destroy  every  other 
part  of  the  building.  Window- 
frames  imperfectly  constructed,  sid- 
ing and  floors  loosely  laid,  and  doors 
with  yawning  joints,  all  allow  the 
entrance  of  cold  and  storms,  and  thus 
become  the  source  of  unnecessary 
expenditure  for  fuel,  as  well  as  of 
serious  injury  to  the  entire  structure. 
Lath  and  plaster  badly  put  on  last 
but  a  short  time,  and  constant  patch- 
ing presents  an  unsightly  appear- 
ance, besides  being  a  cause  of  annoyance  and  expense. 
Surely  no  further  specification  is  needed  to  satisfy  the 
most  reluctant,  that  the  truest  economy  demands  such  an 
expenditure  for  labor  in  the  outset  as  shall  secure  the  best 

possible  construction.  Faults 
in  workmanship  should  be  care- 
fully provided  against.  Every 
part  of  the  work  should  be  sub- 
jected to  the  closest  scrutiny. 

But  workmen  are  not  alone 
to  blame  for  improper  construc- 
tion. It  is  quite  as  often  the 
result  of  false  economy  or  par- 
simony on  the  part  of  owners. 
The  estimates  of  mechanics  are 
often  cut  down  without  an  intelligent  reason,  upon  the  as- 
sumption that  they  are  not  made  in  good  faith.  In  conse- 


Fig.  45. 


GENERAL    CONSTRUCTION.  55 

quence,  the  workmen,  who  perhaps  are  forced  by  circum- 
stances to  undertake  the  job,  are  obliged  to  slight  their 
work  to  save  themselves  from  loss.  The  injury  resulting 
does  not  end  with  the  work  imperfectly  done.  It  impairs 
that  confidence  in  man,  which  is  the  basis  of  all  true 
humanity,  and  leads  to  a  regular  system  of  deception  on 
the  part  of  employer  and  workmen.  Let  those  having 
charge  of  the  construction  of  buildings,  therefore,  beware 
of  offering  a  premium  for  poor  work  by  paying  less  than 
good  work  is  worth.  Let  them  remember  that  "the 
laborer  is  worthy  of  his  hire,"  and  that  to  extort  labor  for 
less  than  its  value  is  only  a  safe  and  legal  species  of  rob- 
bery. 

ARCHITECTURAL  APPEARANCE. — The  style  of  architec- 
ture in  school-houses  should  receive  its  share  of  attention. 
Some  general  principles  should  be  fixed  as  a 
guide  for  those  intending  to  build.  The  old 
style,  or,  rather,  no  style,  we  put  out  of  the 
question,  as  its  whole  object  was  to  provide 
the  cheapest  possible  shelter,  without  refer- 
ence to  true  utility,  and  none  whatever  to 
beauty.  What  shall  take  its  place  is  a  ques- 
tion of  present  and  pressing  interest.  Many 
styles  have  been  proposed,  but  none  as  yet 
have  been  generally  adopted.  The  two  which 
have  attracted  the  most  attention,  and  which 
have  most  frequently  been  described  in  works  Fig" 4G- 
upon  the  apparatus  of  education,  are  the  Greek  and  the 
Gothic.  These  styles  are  now  frequently  found  in  places 
where  considerable  attention  has  been  paid  to  improve- 
ment in  schools,  and  they  have  been  strongly  recom- 
mended by  those  who  have  written  upon  the  subject. 
Some  inquiry  into  their  respective  claims  may  not  be  out 
of  place  here. 


56  OUR   SCHOOL-HOUSES. 

GREEK  ARCHITECTURE. — When  we  speak  of  school-houses 
in  the  Greek  style,  we  mean  those  in  whose  construction 
some  features  of  the  Greek  architec- 
ture have  been  displayed.     For  ex- 
ample, we  often  see  the  Greek  cornice 
extending  around  the  building,  with 
the  tympanums  upon  the  gables  ;  pi- 
lasters, surmounted  with  capitals  in 
imitation  of  the  Greek  columns  ;  the 
Greek   pitch   to   the   roof ;    and,    in 
many  cases,  the  Greek  portico.     All 
these   forms  are   beautiful  in   them- 
selves, and,  in  their  original  combi- 
ng. 47.  nations,    unrivalled   in   architecture. 
But  their  adaptation  to  the  purposes  and  uses  of  a  school 
edifice  may  well  be  questioned. 

The  Greek  architecture  was  developed  chiefly  in  the 
construction  of  temples  for  religious  worship,  which  were 
not  designed  so  much  for  use  as  to  please  the  eye.  Only 
the  outer  and  inner  colonnade  were  covered  ;  the  god  to 
whom  the  temple  was  dedicated  was  supposed  not  to  need 
a  roof,  and  hence  none  was  provided.  All  the  marvellous 
skill  and  energy  of  this  remarkable  people  were  employed 
in  developing  this  style  of  architecture,  and  the  result 
was  very  nearly  perfection.  The  impression  which  such 
a  building  makes  upon  the  mind  is  that  of  sublimity.  But 
an  indispensable  element  in  this  sublimity  is  magnitude. 
A  diminutive  structure  can  never  call  up  the  emotion  of 
the  sublime  ;  and  hence,  when  the  Greek  forms  are  used 
in  the  construction  of  small  buildings,  the  old  maxim  is 
illustrated,  that  "there  is  but  one  step  from  the  sublime 
to  the  ridiculous." 

Not  only  were  Greek  temples  roofless,  but  they  were 
usually  windowless  ;  and  when  we  reduce  them  to  modern, 


GENERAL    CONSTRUCTION. 


57 


48. 


every-day  uses,  we  are  obliged  to  depart  from  the  model 
in  these  two  important  particulars.  Originally,  genius, 
labor,  and  treasure  were  all  expended  upon 
the  colonnade  ;  but  little  attention  was  given 
to  the  interior,  and  therefore  it  has  been  found 
impossible  to  adapt  forms  so  developed  to 
buildings  in  which  the  interior  is  the  most 
important  part.  When  the  Greek  temple  is 
copied  entire,  it  is  found  that  the  immense 
colonnade  occupies  a  large  share  of  the  most 
valuable  space,  and  hence  the  form  is  the  very 
worst  that  can  be  devised  for  use.  If  only 
certain  features  are  engrafted  upon  other  forms, 
the  results  are  defective  and  incongruous. 

Another  consequence  is  a  great  expenditure  of  labor 
and  material,  without  any  adequate  return,  either  in 
convenience  or  beauty.  For  example,  if  the  Greek 
cornice  and  tympanum  are  used  with  the  ordinary  pitch 
of  roof,  the  laws  of  proportion  are  palpably  violated  ;  but 
if  the  original  pitch  is  preserved,  and  shingles  are  used, 
the  roof  is  too  flat  and  soon  decays.  The  horizontal 
cornice  across  the  gable,  which  forms  the  base  of  the 
tympanum,  is  entirely  useless,  as  are  the  capitals  upon 
the  pilasters.  When  any  of 'these  ornaments  are  used  in 
the  construction  of  ordinary  school-houses,  they  always 
wear  a  pretentious  appearance.  We  are  inclined  to  adopt, 
as  an  incontrovertible  principle,  that  Greek  forms  should 
never  be  used  except  in  large  and  costly  buildings. 
Their  introduction  into  school-house  architecture  was 
unfortunate,  and  we  trust  the  time  is  not  far  distant  when 
they  will  fall  into  disuse. 

GOTHIC  ARCHITECTURE. — The  full  development  of  the 
Gothic  architecture  is  found  only  m  temples,  where  mag- 
nitude is  an  indispensable  element.  In  the  construction 


58 


OUR   SCHOOL-HOUSES. 


of  these  buildings  the  interior  was  considered  of  the  most 
importance,  and  everything  was  subordinated  to  the  per- 
I  fection  of  its  finish.  The  steep  roof  was 

thrown  up  to  give  opportunity  for  the  high 
pointed  arches  inside,  which,  in  the  dim, 
shadowy  light,  excited  emotions  of  solem- 
nity and  awe.  When  we  interpose  ceil- 
ings in  Gothic  structures  we  depart  from 
the  original  idea,  and  the  high  meaning 
of  the  style  is  lost. 

In  modern  times  a  great  variety  of 
small  Gothic  buildings  have  been  con- 
structed, peculiarly  beautiful  to  the  eye  ; 
but  when  the  style  has  been  Gothic 
throughout,  the  beautiful  effect  has  been 
produced  at  the  expense  of  economy  and 
Fig.  49.  convenience.  In  the  details  of  building, 

however,  Gothic  forms  can  be  often  used  to  advantage  in 
combination  with  other  architectural  arrangements. 

MODERN  ARCHITECTURE. — The  best  buildings  constructed 
for  modern  use  have  usually  a  composite  style.     Beautiful 

forms  are  adapted  from  any  of  the 
classic  styles,  and  all  the  combina- 
tions are  arranged  to  meet  the  re- 
quirements of  convenience.  The 
architect  can  no  longer  follow  the 
lead  of  sentiment  and  fancy,  and 
create  structures  which  excite  as- 
tonishment and  wonder,  but  he  is 
bound  by  the  laws  of  utility,  and 
his  work  of  fancy  must  be  always 
subordinated  to  the  useful. 
The  designs  in  this  book  have  been  constructed  with 
this  idea  of  utility  constantly  in  mind.  The  comfort  and 


Fig.  50. 


GENERAL    CONSTRUCTION. 


59 


convenience  of  the  pupils  have  first  been  secured,  and 
even  the  claims  of  so-called  economy  have  been  subordi- 
nated to  these. 

The  next  leading  idea  has  been  to  secure  the  finest  ap- 
pearance at  the  least  cost.  With  each  of  the  plans  a  pro- 
gressive series-  of  designs  have  been  given,  commencing 
with  the  plainest  and  cheapest,  and  successively  becoming 
more  elaborate  and  costly. 

No  features  have  been  added  for  the  purpose  of  mere 
ornamentation,  but  beautiful  appearance  has  been  secured 
by  the  shaping  and  harmonious  disposition  of  the  neces- 
sary parts.  The  shape,  size,  and  position  of  doors, 
windows,  chimneys,  gables,  and  cupolas  have  all  been 
made  to  conduce  to  this  end,  and  when  one  of  the  designs 
shall  be  selected,  it  should  be  carried  out  in  the  details, 
or  otherwise  the  builders  may  be  greatly  disappointed. 
In  the  descriptions  it  will  be  noticed  that  certain  features 
of  different  designs  are  interchangeable,  but  great  care 
should  be  exercised  in  making  changes,  so  that  general 
effect  shall  not  be  incongruous. 


Fig.  51. 


CHAPTER  VII. 


DESIGNS    AND    ELEVATIONS. 

THE  plans  and  elevations  in  this  work  have  been  made 
with  special  reference  to  the  present  wants  of  district 
schools  in  the  country  and  of  primary 
schools  in  cities  and  villages.  In 
size  they  are  designed  to  accommo- 
date all  grades  of  schools  consisting 
of  from  twenty-five  to  three  hundred 
pupils.  With  each  plan  several  eleva- 
tions have  been  given,  to  allow  selec- 
tion in  regard  to  taste  and  to  conform 
to  different  ideas  of  economy. 

In  each  series  the  cheaper  eleva- 
tions  are  as  plain  and  economical  in 
structure  as  is  compatible  with  the  health,  comfort,  and 
convenience  of  the  pupils.  Poorer  and  cheaper  structures 
may  be  built,  but  they  can  never  fully  answer  the  pur- 
poses for  which  they  are  designed,  and  the  efficiency  of 
the  school  must  suffer  in  consequence.  In  the  long  run  it 
will  be  found  that  parsimony  is  not  economy. 

From  the  cheapest  possible  form  the  series  rise  in  regu- 
lar gradation  to  the  more  complex  and  ornamental.  Beau- 
tiful forms  in  themselves  are  educational  influences,  and 
the  rudeness  of  pupils  may,  in  a  great  measure,  be  modi- 
fied and  subdued  by  a  due  attention  to  beauty  in  the 
school-house  and  furniture.  Wherever  the  circumstances 


DESIGNS    AND    ELEVATIONS. 


61 


of  the  district  will  warrant  the  outlay,  some  of  the  more 
elaborate  elevations  should  be  chosen,  and  it  will  be  found 
that  the  highest  interests  of  the  school  will  be  served  in 
the  direct  ratio  to  the  expense  incurred. 

In  all  the  designs  sufficient  size  has  been  given  to  the 
rooms  to  afford  an  adequate  supply  of  air,  and  to  allow 
sufficient  freedom  of  movement  on  the  part  of 
pupils.  The  shape  of  the  rooms  has  been  made 
to  conform  to  the  principles  laid  down  in  the 
chapter  upon  Internal  Arrangement.  The  light- 
ing and  heating  is  according  to  the  most  advanced 
scientific  knowledge  upon  these  subjects.  Fi2<  54> 

In  regard  to  materials  of  construction,  styles  adapted  to 
wood,  brick,  and  stone,  have  been  given.  Most  of  the 
elevations  may  be  constructed  with  either  of  these  mate- 
rials. Brick  or  stone  is  to  be  preferred  to  wood  on  many 
accounts.  Houses  of  these  materials,  properly  constructed, 
are  warmer  in  winter,  cooler  in  summer,  and  more  dura- 
ble than  those  built  of  wood. 


Fig.  55. 


62  OUR   SCHOOL-HOUSES. 


DESIGN  I. 

In  many  parts  of  New  England,  and  several  other  of 
the  northern  States,  a  popular  form 
of  a  school-house  is  that  of  a  build- 
ing with  a  side  to  the  street,  with  a 
smaller  building  used  for  a  wood- 
house,  extending  along  in  a  line 
with  the  main  building  directly  upon 
the  street.  Usually,  the  entrance 
is  through  an  open  doorway  into 
the  wood-house,  and  thence  directly 
-  56.  into  the  school-room. 

The  advantages  of  the  plan  are  cheapness  of  structure 
and  convenience  of  access  to  the  fuel.  In  regions  where 
the  storms  of  winter  are  severe  and  the  snows  are  deep, 
the  situation  of  the  building  directly  upon  the  road-side, 
with  but  a  single  entrance  to  both  the  wood-house  and  the 
school-room,  favors  economy  in  the  removing  of  snow  and 
in  the  construction  of  paths.  The  wood-house  also  affords 
protection  to  the  entrance  of  the  school-room,  and  may  be 
considered  as  an  excuse  fori  an  entry-way. 

But  this  arrangement  is  faulty  in  several  particulars. 
The  long,  continuous  roofs,  or  one  gable  falling  beneath 
another,  gives  to  it  an  unsightly  appearance,  and  there  is 
no  visible  outside  door  to  the  main  building.  There  is  but 
one  entrance  for  the  two  sexes,  and  no  lobby  for  deposit- 
ing hats  and  outer  garments.  In  the  elevations  given,  an 
effort  has  been  made  to  preserve  the  main  features  of  this 
plan,  but  to  so  modify  it  in  details  as  to  correct  some  of 
the  most  obvious  faults.  At  best,  however,  this  can  only 


DESIGNS   AND    ELEVATIONS. 


63 


OUR   SCHOOL-HOUSES. 


DESIGNS    AND    ELEVATIONS. 


67 


be  clone  partially,  as  some  of  the  most  serious  faults  are 
essential  parts  of  the  plan. 

In  the  plan  given,  Fig.  57,  the  wood-house  is  entirely 
inclosed,  and  a  front  door  is  constructed  for  a  main  en- 
trance into  the  school-room,  and  a  side  door  for  the  ad- 
mission of  wood.  A  partition  has  been  made  to  extend 


Fig.  57. 


through  the  wood-house,  cutting  off  the  front  part  for  an 
entry- way  and  a  lobby  for  hats  and  cloaks.  In  the  school- 
room a  space  has  been  left  for  a  fire-place  ;  but  in  case  a 
stove  is  used  it  should  be  placed  in  the  front  corner  far- 
thest from  the  door.  The  wall  in  front,  then,  may  be 
used  as  a  blackboard. 

The  size  of  this  building  is  immaterial,  as  the  same 
general  plan  may  be  made  to  accommodate  from  twenty  to 
one  hundred  pupils.  For  all  but  very  small  districts,  the 
houses  having  two  entrances  are  much  to  be  preferred. 

ELEVATION  No.  1. — This  is  a  very  plain  elevation  of  a 
wood  structure  furnished  with  clap-boards.  The  arrange- 
ment of  the  wood-house,  narrower  and  lower  than  the 
main  building,  and  the  construction  of  the  doors,  give  to 
the  building  an  idea  of  proportion,  and  make  it  a  great 
improvement  upon  the  open  wood-house  style. 


68  OUR   SCHOOL-HOUSES. 

The  windows  in  the  main  building  are  grouped  together 
for  the  triple  purpose  of  economy  in  construction,  finer 
architectural  appearance,  and  a  better  disposition  of  light. 
The  separate  windows,  however,  can  be  used  if  preferred. 
The  large  ornamental  chimney  is  a  feature  which  gives 
character  to  the  whole  structure,  and  which  ought  not  to 
be  omitted.  Its  large  size  is  for  the  purpose  of  affording 
room  for  both  smoke  and  ventilating  flues. 

ELEVATION  No.  2. — The  principal  difference  between 
this  and  No.  1  is  that  the  roof  of  the  main  building  is 
turned  in  the  opposite  direction,  and  is  at  right  angles 
with  the  roof  of  the  wood-house  instead  of  parallel  with 
it.  Architecturally,  this  is  a  better  arrangement,  as  one 
gable  ought  not  to  come  directly  beneath  another.  In 
the  picture  this  building  is  finished  with  battens  ;  but  clap- 
boards may  be  used  if  preferred.  In  case  battens  are 
used,  the  boards  should  all  be  narrow,  not  exceeding 
eight  inches  in  width,  and  the  battens  only  wide  enough  to 
cover  the  joint,  and  they  should  always  be  nailed  through 
the  middle. 

ELEVATION  No.  3. — In  essential  features  it  is  like  No.  2. 
The  roof  is  of  the  same  general  description,  but  less  steep. 
The  cornices  of  the  two  buildings  are  upon  the  same  level, 
and  an  ornamental  cornice  extends  across  the  gables. 
The  windows  are  represented  as  separate,  but  they  may 
be  grouped  as  in  1  and  2.  The  finish  of  this  design  is  in 
brick,  though  either  brick  or  wood  may  be  used  for  either 
of  the  elevations.  This  design  is  specially  adapted  to  a 
level  country,  where  it  is  in  harmony  with  the  scenery. 


DESIGNS   AND   ELEVATIONS. 


69 


72 


OUR   SCHOOL-HOUSES. 


DESIGNS    AND    ELEVATIONS. 


DESIGN  II. 

A  small  school  may  be  well  accommodated  by  a  plan  like 
that  represented  in  Fig.  59.  It  consists  of  a  school-room 
with  a  single  porch  in  front,  and  a  wood- 
house  in  the  rear.  The  room  represented 
contains  seats  for  twenty-four  pupils,  but 
by  increasing  the  length  three  feet  there 
will  be  room  for  one  more  row  of  seats,  and 
for  thirty  pupils,  and  by  increasing  its 
width  four  feet,  it  will  contain  still  another 
row  of  desks,  and  seats  for  forty  pupils. 

The  porch  is  a  single  room,  but  of  suffi- 
cient size   for  a  lobby   for  clothes.     The 
stove  is  to  be  placed  in  one  of  the  nitches 
in  front,  while  the  other  nitch  may  be  used          Pig- 58- 
for  a  closet.     The  ventilators  in  this,  as  in  all  the  designs, 
are  placed  in  the  rear  of  the  room,  but  each  one  is  con- 
nected with  the  chimney  by  a  tube  under  the  floor. 


Fig.  59. 


The  wood-house  in  the  rear  serves  the  double  purpose 
of  back  hall  or  entry-way  and  a  place  of  storage  for  fuel. 


74  OUR   SCHOOL-HOUSES. 

The  doors  upon  the  sides  should  open  respectively  into 
the  boys'  and  girls'  play-grounds.  The  front  part  of  the 
wood-house  should  be  provided  with  a  platform  upon  a 
level  with  the  school-house  floor,  at  least  four  feet  wide. 

This  general  plan  is  superior  to  Design  I.,  by  having 
back  as  well  as  front  entrances,  so  that  access  may  be  had 
to  the  play-grounds  and  out-buildings  without  disturbance 
to  classes,  or  to  the  general  order  of  the  school-room. 
The  movements  of  pupils  are  not  so  conspicuous  as  they 
would  be  if,  in  their  entrance  and  exit,  they  were  always 
obliged  to  pass  through  the  front  door. 

ELEVATION  No.  1. — This  elevation  is  a  simple  and  inex- 
pensive building,  with  wide  projecting  eaves  that  give  to 
it  an  appearance  of  comfort  and  solidity.  The  porch  is 
finished  with  a  tent-roof,  to  obviate  the  necessity  of  a  gable 
under  a  gable.  It  is  lighted  by  a  small  window  upon  the 
side,  as  the  height  of  the  roof  would  hardly  admit  of  a 
head-window  over  the  door.  The  windows  are  grouped 
together,  and  the  whole  design  produces  a  very  pleasing 
effect. 

If  a  larger  house  is  built  upon  this  plan,  the  outside 
appearance  may  remain  the  same  by  simply  increasing  all 
the  parts  in  proportion.  If  three  feet  be  added  to  the 
length  no  other  change  need  be  made,  but  if  the  addition 
is  made  to  the  width  the  porch  should  be  enlarged  in 
proportion. 

ELEVATION  No.  2. — In  this  elevation  the  roof  of  the 
main  building  is  placed  at  right  angles  with  the  roof  of 
the  porch  and  wood-house,  giving  a  fine  architectural 
effect  to  the  group.  The  cornices  of  the  three  parts  are 
upon  the  same  level,  and  an  ornamental  cornice  extends 
across  the  gable.  This  feature  may  be  omitted,  and  the 
roofs  may  be  arranged  in  the  same  manner  as  those  in 
Elevation  No.  2  of  Design  I.  In  case  the  gable  cornice  is 


DESIGNS    AND    ELEVATIONS, 


78 


OUR   SCHOOL-HOUSES. 


7 


DESIGNS   AND   ELEVATIONS.  79 

omitted  the  cornices  of  the  porch  and  wood-house  should 
drop  below  that  of  the  main  building.  The  porch  is 
lighted  by  a  head-light  above  the  door.  The  materials 
of  this  building  may  be  either  brick  or  wood. 

ELEVATION  No.  3. — This  elevation  is  more  ornamental. 
The  corners  of  the  gable  are  cut  off,  and  a  small  gable  is 
erected  over  each  of  the  large  windows  in  the  sides.  The 
porch  is  finished  with  a  common  gable.  The  ornamental 
filigree  work  of  the  gables  may  be  omitted,  and  the  cornice 
made  wide  and  plain,  like  that  of  Elevation  No.  1.  The 
only  extra  cost  of  this  elevation  is  raising  the  gables  over 
the  windows,  arid  in  cutting  down  the  corners  of  the  roof, 
the  whole  of  which  ought  not  to  exceed  a  few  dollars. 
This  elevation  is  represented  as  finished  with  battens,  but 
clap-boards  may  be  used,  or  the  house  may  be  built  of 
brick.  The  superior  appearance  of  this  design  will  more 
than  warrant  the  additional  expense. 

ELEVATION  No.  4. — In  villages  and  country  places 
near  cities,  where  the  dwellings  are  of  fine  architectural 
appearance,  the  school-house  should  be  in  harmony  with 
the  surroundings,  and  there  is  a  demand  for  ornamental 
designs.  Elevation  No.  4  has  been  prepared  to  meet 
this  demand  when  a  small  school-house  is  wanted.  The 
general  features  are  Gothic,  but  the  whole  is  chaste  and 
neat  and  not  excessively  expensive.  The  steep  gables 
all  terminate  in  minarets  or  pinnacles.  An  ornamental 
bell-tower  surmounts  the  front.  The  porch  has  an  orna- 
mental tent-roof,  sloping  down  from  the  front  gable. 
Gables  are  erected  above  the  side  windows,  and  a  beauti- 
ful ornamental  chimney  extends  upward  from  one  side  of 
the  porch.  The  material  may  be  brick  or  stone,  the  finish 
of  the  gables  being  a  stone  coping  instead  of  a  cornice. 
This  coping  may  be  made  of  wood  with  a  covering  of  tin. 
This  elevation  might  also  be  used  as  a  session-room  for  a 


TTKTYF/RSITY 


80  OUR   SCHOOL-HOUSES. 

church,  and  for  a  variety  of  other  public  purposes.  The 
roof  should  be  covered  with  slate. 

In  some  parts  of  the  country  the  small  number  of  pupils 
in  the  district  is  given  as  an  excuse  for  a  miserable  school- 
house.  The  fact  of  a  limited  number  of  pupils  may  be  a 
sufficient  reason  for  the  construction  of  a  small  school- 
house,  but  not  for  a  poor  one.  The  educational  wants  of 
a  small  district  and  of  a  small  number  of  children  are  just 
as  pressing  as  though  the  territory  and  the  number  were 
indefinitely  increased,  and  a  neglect  to  supply  them  is  just 
as  detrimental  in  the  one  case  as  in  the  other.  If  this 
excuse  were  a  good  one  the  State  would  be  justified  in 
withholding  the  public  funds  on  the  same  ground. 

But,  again,  it  is  argued  that  the  smaller  districts  are 
often  too  poor  to  erect  a  respectable  appearing  and  com- 
fortable school-house.  It  may  be  that  many  of  the  dis- 
tricts are  very  poor,  and  in  that  case  they  are  far  too 
poor  to  subject  their  children  to  exposures  and  consequent 
disease,  and  so  a  good  school-house  becomes  indispensable. 
Each  district  that  partakes  of  the  public  money  of  the 
State  is  morally  bound  to  provide  all  the  appliances 
necessary  for  the  proper  expenditure  of  the  money  so 
obtained;  and  the  poorer  the  district  the  greater  is  the 
necessity  for  all  possible  means  for  moral  and  physical 
advancement. 


DESIGNS    AND   ELEVATIONS. 


81 


84 


OUR   SCHOOL-HOUSES. 


DESIGNS   AND   ELEVATIONS.  85 


DESIGN  III. 

Country  schools  generally  need  accommodations  for 
from  forty  to  eighty  pupils.  In  the  plan  given  for  Design 
III.,  sixty  seats  are  provided.  The 
room  is  thirty-four  by  thirty-eight 
feet,  and  by  slight  changes  in  size 
it  may  be  contracted  or  expanded. 
By  adding  three  feet  to  the  length 
space  is  given  for  ten  additional 
seats,  and  by  making  the  building 
four  feet  narrower  there  would  still 
be  sufficient  room  for  four  rows  of 
desks,  accommodating  forty-eight  Fig.  GO. 

pupils. 

In  this  design  two  entrances  are  provided  in  front,  each 
of  which  opens  into  a  room  which  is  at  once  an  entry-way 
and  a  lobby  for  clothes.  The  space  between  the  two 
entry-ways  can  be  used  for  recitations,  and  a  room  may 
be  finished  in  the  basement,  or  added  to  the  rear,  for  the 
storing  of  fuel. 

This  design  is  well  adapted  to  districts  in  which  the 
attendance  is  large  during  one  portion  of  the  year  and 
small  at  other  times.  The  recitation-room  gives  an 
opportunity  for  the  employment  of  an  extra  teacher  when 
the  school  is  crowded.  The  front  and  back  walls  of  the 
school-room,  between  the  two  doors,  should  be  occupied  by 
a  blackboard.  The  stoves  are  placed  in  the  front  corners 
of  the  room  and  the  ventilators  in  the  opposite  corners,  in 
accordance  with  the  principles  laid  down  in  the  chapter 
upon  heat  and  ventilation.  This  room  is  supplied  with 


86 


OUR   SCHOOL-HOUSES. 


two  back  entrances  opening  respectively  into  the  boys7 
and  girls'  play-grounds. 

ELEVATION  No.  1. — This  elevation  represents  a  plain 
but  neat  and  substantial  building  of  wood.     The  roof  has 


Fig.  61. 

the  plain,  wide,  projecting  cornice  and  eaves  which  protect 
the  walls  of  the  building,  and  at  the  same  time  give  it  an 
appearance  of  comfort  arid  solidity.  The  finish  may  be 
of  battens,  as  in  the  engraving,  or  it  may  be  of  clap-boards, 
or  substantially  the  same  building  may  be  made  of  brick. 
This  elevation  is  represented  as  standing  on  a  hill-side 
which  slopes  downward  and  backward  from  the  house. 
In  situations  of  this  kind  the  back  entrance  may  be  omit- 
ted, and  the  basement  may  be  fitted  up  for  a  wood- 
room.  The  nearly  square  form  of  this  elevation,  the 
perfectly  plain  finish,  the  arrangement  of  everything 
beneath  a  single  roof,  and  the  entire  lack  of  ornamenta- 
tion, render  this  one  of  the  cheapest  buildings  which  can 
be  erected.  If  anything  cheaper  is  attempted  it  will  be 
by  the  use  of  poor  materials,  by  scrimping  just  propor- 
tions, or  by  diminishing  the  size,  so  as  to  deprive  pupils  of 


DESIGNS    AND   ELEVATIONS. 


87 


90 


OUR   SCHOOL-HOUSES. 


DESIGNS    AND    ELEVATIONS.  91 

their  due  proportion  of  pure  air,  and  of  their  freedom  of 
movement.  In  either  case  the  interests  of  the  school  will 
suffer,  and  present  saving  will  be  effected  at  a  fearful 
future  cost  to  the  children. 

ELEVATION  No.  2. — This  is  another  very  plain  and 
cheap  structure  of  wood,  finished  with  clap-boards.  The 
bell-tower  gives  dignity  to  the  building,  but  it  may  be 
omitted.  The  roof  is  the  ordinary  pitch  and  may  be 
covered  with  slate  or  shingles. 

In  finishing  wood  structures  in  this  manner,  the  clap- 
boards should  be  laid  with  but  little  exposure  to  the 
weather.  This  arrangement  gives  tighter  joints,  and 
makes  the  building  much  warmer.  In  some  sections 
buildings  designed  for  habitation  are  covered  with  a  coat- 
ing of  tarred  paper  before  the  siding  is  laid,  and  this 
renders  them  almost  air-tight.  This  covering  is  recom- 
mended for  school-houses  built  in  our  northern  climate, 
and  in  exposed  locations.  By  its  use  the  school-room 
will  be  made  more  comfortable,  and  a  large  saving  in 
fuel  will  be  made. 

ELEVATION  No.  3. — This  building,  in  form,  is  but  a  slight 
variation  from  No.  2.  The  corners  of  the  gables  have  been 
cut  off  and  the  form  of  the  cupola  changed  ;  but  otherwise 
it  is  substantially  the  same.  The  finish  in  the  engraving  is 
made  to  represent  brick,  but  wood  or  stone  may  be  used. 

In  the  erection  of  brick  walls  care  must  be  taken  to 
have  the  walls  hollow,  or  formed  so  that  a  space  of  air 
may  be  confined  within  them,  otherwise  the  walls  will 
be  damp  and  the  room  unhealthy.  The  precaution  should 
also  be  taken  to  have  the  foundation  laid  in  hydraulic 
cement  as  high  as  the  water-table  to  prevent  the  moisture 
of  the  ground  from  permeating  the  entire  walls  of  the 
building.  The  effect  of  the  moisture  is  not  only  deleteri- 
ous to  health,  but,  combined  with  the  action  of  frost,  it 


92  OUR   SCHOOL-HOUSES. 

has  a  tendency  to  crack  and  destroy  the  walls  of  the 
building. 

ELEVATION  No.  4. — This  elevation  has  been  varied  by 
the  introduction  of  the  arched  windows  and  corner  but- 
tresses. These  features  give  to  the  building  a  strong  and 
substantial  appearance.  The  cupola  is  a  square  structure 
supported  by  a  projecting  framework  beneath,  and  in 
keeping  with  the  general  architecture  of  the  house.  The 
material  represented  in  the  picture  is  stone,  though  brick 
may  be  used. 

The  pointed  arches  in  windows  are  always  elegant,  and 
may  be  much  more  commonly  used  in  buildings  to  the 
manifest  improvement  of  architecture.  The  window 
heads  and  sills  should  be  of  cut  stone,  but  a  fine  effect 
may  be  produced  by  making  the  arches  of  brick  and 
stone,  or  brick  of  two  colors  laid  alternately.  The  string- 
course at  the  base  of  the  window-caps  may  be  omitted 
entirely,  and  the  windows  finished  in  the  ordinary  manner. 
The  buttresses  should  always  terminate  in  pinnacles,  or 
otherwise  the  structure  would  appear  bald  and  unfinished. 
In  case  brick  is  used  in  the  erection  of  this  building,  a 
fine  impression  may  be  made  by  using  common  brick  for 
the  principal  walls  and  pressed  or  Milwaukee  brick  for 
the  buttresses  and  ornaments. 

ELEVATION  No.  5. — This  elevation  represents  a  stone 
building  of  quaint  design,  of  fine  appearance,  and  of  cheap 
construction.  The  walls  are  made  high  and  the  roof 
steep.  The  front  portion,  containing  the  porches  and 
recitation-room,  has  a  lower  wall  and  a  roof  which  comes 
directly  under  the  cornice  of  the  main  building  and  abuts 
against  the  gable.  The  angles  of  the  main  roof  are  cut 
off,  and  a  plain  stone  cupola  or  bell-tower  rises  in  front. 
The  window-heads  are  circular  arches,  and  may  be  con- 
structed with  cut  stone  or  of  the  ordinary  building  stone 


DESIGNS    AND    ELEVATIONS. 


9G 


OUR   SCHOOL-HOUSES, 


DESIGNS    AND    ELEVATIONS.  97 

roughly  fitted  to  its  place.  Courses  of  brick  might  be 
made  to  inclose  the  windows  so  as  to  produce  a  more 
picturesque  effect. 

In  this  design  the  fine  appearance  is  entirely  owing  to 
the  disposition  of  the  several  parts,  each  of  which  is 
necessary  to  the  full  effect.  To  give  room  for  sufficient 
height  in  the  porches,  the  main  walls  of  the  building  must 
be  carried  up  rather  higher  than  usual ;  but  the  extra 
height  of  the  school-room  will  be  all  the  better  for  the 
pupils,  as  it  affords  them  a  greater  amount  of  air.  The 
bell-tower,  though  a  simple  wall  of  stone,  with  an  opening 
for  a  bell,  has  a  fine  outline  and  is  a  necessary  part  of  the 
building.  Such  a  structure  would  be  considered  orna- 
mental in  any  part  of  the  country. 

Wherever  stone  can  be  easily  and  cheaply  obtained  a 
building  of  this  description  may  be  put  up  at  a  moderate 
expense. 

In  constructing  a  stone  building,  extra  care  must  be 
taken  that  the  foundations  are  securely  laid  below  the 
action  of  frost.  The  walls  should  be  hollow  or  furred. 

Elevations  4  and  5  would  be  appropriate  designs  for 
small  churches,  and  be  much  more  expressive  in  their 
architecture,  while  no  more  costly  than  many  of  the 
country  churches  now  erected. 


98 


OUR   SCHOOL-HOUSES. 


Fig.  62. 


DESIGN  IV. 

The   plan  of    this   design   represents   another   of   the 
medium-sized  school-houses.     It  is  rectangular  in  form, 
,  and  the  school-room  has  seats  for  sixty 

pupils.  By  changes  like  that  described 
in  Design  III.,  it  may  be  made  to  accom- 
modate more  or  less,  according  to  the 
requirements.  In  the  rear  of  the  main 
building  is  a  smaller  structure,  which  may 
be  used  as  a  wood-room,  recitation-room, 
or  both.  In  it  are  the  back  entry-ways. 
The  windows  are  put  into  one  group  on 
each  side,  for  reasons  given  in  the  de- 
scription of  Design  II.  The  door  in  the 
front  partition  of  the  school-room  may  be  omitted,  and 
the  entrance  to  the  front  recitation-room  made  through 
the  front  halls.  The  stoves  and  ventilating  flues  are 
arranged  as  in  Design  III.  The  recitation-room  may  be 
made  wider  by  a  slight  increase  in  the  length  of  the 
building. 

We  would  call  special  attention  to  this  design  and  the 
several  elevations  accompanying  it.  It  perhaps  combines 
more  than  any  other  the  essential  requisites  of  country 
school-houses.  It  is  cheap.  No  room  is  lost,  and  no 
expense  is  wasted  upon  superfluous  features.  It  is  simple 
in  construction,  so  that  any  carpenter  can  build  it  who 
has  wit  enough  to  put  building  materials  together.  It  is 
exceedingly  neat  in  appearance,  as  will  be  seen  by  re- 
ferring to  any  of  the  elevations  given  ;  and  this  beauty 
will  appear  greatly  enhanced  when  these  elevations  are 


DESIGNS    AND    ELEVATIONS. 


99 


OUR   SCHOOL-HOUSES, 


101 


DESIGNS    AND    ELEVATIONS. 


103 


compared  to  the  houses  now  ordinarily  found  in  country 
places. 

It  affords  ample  accommodation  for  the  school  and 
freedom  of  movement  for  both  teacher  and  pupil.  It 
admits  light  in  the  most  effective  manner  possible,  and  if 
properly  furnished  with  adjustable  inside  blinds,  the  light 
can  be  properly  tempered  and  distributed.  Ample  ar- 
rangements are  made  for  a  perfect  system  of  ventilation, 
and  an  unlimited  supply  of  fresh  air  in  the  disposition  of 


Pig.  63. 

the  stoves,  chimneys,  and  ventilating  tubes.  If  intelligent 
care  is  bestowed  upon  them,  pupils  need  never  suffer  from 
the  effects  of  foul  air.  Provision  has  also  been  made  for 
ample  summer  ventilation  in  the  large  openings  on  the 
four  sides  of  the  house. 

Again,  by  having  an  extra  recitation-room  the  plan  is 
an  adjustable  one,  admitting  of  the  employment  of  an 
extra  teacher  during  the  season  when  the  school  is  most 
crowded.  If  either  of  the  elevations  of  this  design  is 
adopted,  and  the  building  erected  as  described,  it  will 
last  for  several  generations,  and  will  afford  ample  and 
excellent  accommodation  for  all. 


104  OUR   SCHOOL-HOUSES. 

One  of  the  rooms  in  the  rear  or  the  recitation-room  in 
front  may  be  used  for  the  district  library,  or  it  may  be 
fitted  up  as  a  cabinet  for  the  reception  and  preservation  of 
such  specimens  of  natural  history  as  are  beginning  to  be  con- 
sidered indispensable  to  the  highest  success  of  any  school. 

In  making  choice  between  the  different  elevations 
given,  unless  cheapness  is  considered  the  chief  requisite, 
preference  should  be  given  to  one  of  the  more  elaborate 
structures  ;  and  wherever  a  choice  can  be  made  in  build- 
ing materials,  brick  or  stone  should  be  used  in  preference 
to  wood.  A  good  stone  house  of  this  description,  well 
furnished,  would  leave  scarcely  anything  more  to  be 
desired  in  the  form  of  school  accommodation. 

ELEVATION  No.  1. — This  is  the  plainest  possible  eleva- 
tion of  the  plan  of  Design  IY.  It  is  a  wood  building, 
having  a  plain  roof  with  the  ordinary  pitch,  and  wide 
projecting  cornice.  The  finish  may  be  battens  or  common 
siding ;  the  former,  however,  is  to  be  preferred  on  the 
score  of  appearance.  The  chimney  is  high  and  substan- 
tial, and  in  buildings  of  this  kind,  the  chimney,  being  the 
only  projection  from  the  roof,  should  be  built  with  care. 
The  windows,  which  are  grouped  together  in  the  elevation, 
may  be  arranged  in  the  usual  manner,  in  which  case  a 
side  window  would  open  into  the  porch,  and  the  head-light 
above  the  door  might  be  omitted. 

ELEVATION  No.  2. — This  elevation,  represented  as 
finished  in  brick,  may  be  built  of  wood.  It  is  a  modifica- 
tion of  Elevation  No.  1,  with  a  change  in  the  shape  of  the 
window-heads,  the  addition  of  a  cupola,  and  the  introduc- 
tion of  small  mullion  windows  to  light  the  porches.  The 
finish  is  plain,  and  the  general  effect  is  good.  The  cupola 
may  be  omitted  if  desired,  in  which  case  the  chimneys 
should  be  made  broader. 

ELEVATION  No.  3. — This  elevation  is  similar  to  the  last, 


DESIGNS    AND    ELEVATIONS. 


105 


OUR   SCHOOL-HOUSES. 


107 


DESIGNS    AND    ELEVATIONS.  109 

the  changes  being  mainly  in  detail.  The  window-heads 
are .  square  instead  of  circular,  and  narrow  ornamental 
hoods  are  placed  above  the  windows  and  doors.  The 
windows  of  No.  2  may  be  used,  if  preferred.  The  main 
feature  of  difference  is  the  cupola,  which  in  this  design 
apparently  grows  out  of  the  structure  beneath,  and  hence 
is  an  integral  part  of  it ;  while  in  No.  2  the  cupola  seems 
to  be  put  on  in  such  a  way  that  it  is  not  an  essential  part. 
The  materials  of  the  building  should  be  brick,  and  it 
would  appear  much  better  to  have  the  roof  and  base  of 
the  cupola  covered  with  slate. 

ELEVATION  No.  4. — This  is  an  ornamental  design  for 
village  and  suburban  places.  The  cupola  is  light  and 
elegant,  and  a  gable  is  thrown  up  over  the  windows  to 
give  a  greater  architectural  effect.  The  chimney  is  pro- 
jected outside  of  the  main  wall,  to  break  the  monotony 
of  the  blank  wall  between  the  windows  and  the  front 
corner  of  the  building.  The  materials  may  be  brick  or 
stone.  By  the  introduction  of  the  gable  over  the  windows, 
the  walls  are  made  lower,  and  the  roof  comes  much  nearer 
the  ground  than  in  the  other  designs.  Instead  of  a  cornice, 
the  gables  are  finished  with  a  coping  of  stone  or  of  wood 
covered  with  tin. 

This  elevation  would  make  an  elegant  design  for  a  coun- 
try church.  Its  fine  architectural  appearance  is  owing 
entirely  to  the  general  style  of  finish,  the  proportions 
observed,  and  the  disposition  of  its  several  parts.  No 
one  feature  has  been  added  for  mere  ornament,  though 
each  of  the  necessary  parts  has  been  made  ornamental. 
The  roof  should  be  of  slate. 

ELEVATION  No.  5. — This  elevation  represents  another 
ornamental  brick  or  stone  building,  with  a  slate  roof. 
The  cupola,  like  that  of  No.  3,  is  made  to  grow  out  of  the 
structure.  The  windows  and  doors  have  pointed  Gothic 


110  OUR   SCHOOL-HOUSES. 

arches,  and  over  each  of  the  side  windows  a  gable  has 
been  erected.  The  whole  grouping  produces  a  very 
pleasant  effect,  and  the  design  would  make  a  most  excel- 
lent school-house  or  a  snug  little  church. 

In  erecting  structures  of  this  kind,  great  care  must  be 
taken  to  make  the  foundation  secure.  The  underpinning 
should  be  laid  upon  concrete,  and  placed  below  the  action 
of  frost.  The  stone  should  be  laid  in  hydraulic  cement, 
and  every  care  taken  that  the  whole  foundation  should  be 
of  sufficient  strength  to  support  the  weight  which  must 
rest  upon  it. 

Objection  is  sometimes  made  to  the  erection  'of  school- 
houses  with  cupolas  and  fine  windows  and  doors,  because 
they  look  so  much  like  churches.  This  objection,  however, 
is  far  from  being  a  logical  one.  The  school  and  the 
church  are  both  engaged  in  the  same  work,  and  they  are 
complementary  rather  than  antagonistic.  Th^re  is,  there- 
fore, no  good  reason  why  the  fine  forms  invented  to  orna- 
ment places  of  worship  should  not  be  considered  as 
legitimate  when  used  to  ornament  places  of  instruction. 
As  a  work  of  art,  and  as  an  elevating  influence  in 
community,  a  fine  architectural  structure  would  be  the 
same  in  either  case  ;  but  in  a  school-house  its  beauty 
would  have  a  more  practical  and  enduring  influence,  as  it 
would  become  intimately  associated  with  the  impressible 
hearts  of  childhood. 


DESIGNS   AND    ELEVATIONS. 


Ill 


OUR   SCHOOL-HOUSES. 


113 


DESIGNS   AND    ELEVATIONS. 


115 


DESIGN  V. 

The  plan  of  this  design  represents  a  building  somewhat 
larger  than  any  of  the  preceding,  and  one  approaching  the 
size  of  the  smaller  Union  Schools.  As 
represented,  the  school-room  has  seats  for 
seventy  pupils,  and  by  a  slight  addition  to 
its  length  and  breadth,  may  be  made  to 
accommodate  from  eighty  to  one  hundred. 
The  entrances  are  from  the  sides,  and  the 
two  sides  are  finished  exactly  alike.  This 
will  give  a  large  and  commodious  lobby 
for  each  sex,  and  a  fine  recitation-room 
for  a  second  teacher.  The  entrance  to  the 
recitation-room  may  be  from  the  porches, 
and  the  door  in  front  of  the  school-room 
omitted,  leaving  the  entire  space  directly  in  front  for 
blackboard.  The  heating  and  ventilation  of  this  room 
is  like  that  already  described.  The  rear  doors  may  be 
omitted  if  thought  best. 

ELEVATION  No.  1. — This  elevation  represents  a  plain 
wood  building  finished  with  ordinary  siding.  The  win- 
dows are  placed  in  the  ordinary  manner,  the  roof  is  made 
with  as  little  pitch  as  is  compatible  with  the  use  of  shin- 
gles. No  ornamental  work  has  been  admitted.  The 
cornice  is  plain  and  substantial,  and  the  building  is  as 
cheap  as  materials  can  be  put  together  to  answer  the 
purpose  of  a  good  school-house.  The  small  porch  over 
the  steps  is  a  very  desirable  feature  for  the  comfort  of  the 
pupils  and  for  the  cleanliness  of  the  house.  It  affords 
protection  from  rains  while  the  pupils  are  cleaning  their 


Fig.  64. 


116 


OUR   SCHOOL-HOUSES. 


feet,  and  at  the  same  time  it  relieves  in  some  measure  the 
monotony  of  the  architecture.     A  glance  at  the  engraving 


Fig.  65. 

will  show  that,  for  just  proportions,  the  roof  of  the  porch 
is  too  low,  and  that  when  built,  it  should  be  elevated  as 
far  as  the  cornice  permits. 

In  northern  climates  the  foundations  of  buildings  of  this 
kind  should  be  solid  and  continuous,  both  to  give  solidity 
to  the  structure  and  to  prevent  the  circulation  of  cold  air 
beneath  the  building.  In  the  Southern  States,  however, 
it  would  be  best  to  rest  the  building  upon  piers,  to  give 
a  free  circulation  of  air  beneath  the  entire  building.  This 
will  make  the  school- room  cooler  in  warm  weather,  and 
will  tend  to  preserve  the  timbers  from  decay.  The  piers 
should  be  firmly  and  securely  built,  or  the  building  will 
be  racked. 

ELEVATION  No.  2. — This  elevation  represents  a  wood 
building  with  a  batten  finish.  An  inexpensive  hood  is 
placed  above  the  windows,  and  a  cupola  surmounts  the 
roof.  This  last  feature  may  be  omitted,  as  it  is  not  an 


DESIGNS    AND    ELEVATIONS. 


117 


OUR   SCHOOL-HOUSES. 


119 


DESIGNS   AND    ELEVATIONS.  121 

essential  part  of  the  building.  The  roof  of  the  porch  is 
thrown  up  into  a  gable,  producing  a  fine  effect  at  little 
cost.  The  roof  has  a  plain  projecting  cornice  of  the  cheap- 
est form.  The  same  form  of  building  may  be  finished 
with  clap-boards,  or  it  may  be  built  of  brick. 

ELEVATION  No.  3. — This  elevation  represents  the  plain- 
est form  of  a  brick  building.  The  roof  is  about  the  usual 
pitch  for  shingles,  and  the  only  extra  feature  is  the  cupola, 
which  may  be  omitted. 

ELEVATION  No.  4. — In  this  elevation  the  roof  is  made 
steeper  than  the  last,  the  cornice  lighter,  and  the  exten- 
sion of  the  cornice  across  the  gable  has  been  omitted. 
The  doorway  is  covered  with  a  porch,  which  rises  in  the 
main  roof  in  the  form  of  a  gable.  The  material  may  be 
brick,  stone,  or  wood.  The  bell-tower  is  made  smaller 
and  lighter  than  that  of  No.  3. 

ELEVATION  No.  5. — This  elevation  in  general  form  is 
like  No.  4,  but  with  several  modifications  in  details.  The 
pitch  of  the  roof  and  the  form  of  the  cupolas  are  essen- 
tially the  same.  The  corners  of  the  gables  are  cut  off, 
and  the  window-heads  are  rounded  arches.  In  the  en- 
graving the  finish  is  represented  as  brick  or  stone,  with 
cut-stone  groins,  window-heads,  and  sills. 

ELEVATION  No.  6. — This  is  the  most  elaborate  design 
of  the  series,  and  makes  a  highly  ornamental  school- 
building.  It  should  be  built  of  stone  and  have  a  slate 
roof.  The  doors  and  windows  have  pointed  arches,  and 
the  roof  and  gables  all  terminate  in  similar  arches.  The 
corners  of  the  roof  are  cut  off,  and  the  front  is  ornamented 
with  a  plain  and  substantial  cupola.  The  stone  porch 
over  the  door  terminates  in  a  gable,  and  all  the  gables 
are  finished  with  stone  copings.  This  elevation  would 
make  an  admirable  design  for  a  small  country  church. 


122 


OUR   SCHOOL-HOUSES. 


UNION   SCHOOL-HOUSES. 

The  greatest  need  of  the  common  schools  of  this  country 
is  a  well-organized  system  of  instruction.  It  is  obvious 
to  every  one  that  a  course  of  study 
adapted  to  the  capacity  of  the  more 
advanced  pupils  cannot  be  successfully 
pursued  by  the  primary  classes  ;  and  it 
ought  to  be  just  as  obvious  that  the  sys- 
tem of  discipline,  and  the  methods  of 
imparting  instruction  in  the  two  cases, 
should  be  different.  Educators  have 
long  since  demonstrated  that  certain 
fixed  principles,  both  of  instruction  and 
discipline,  are  adapted  to  the  different 
ages  and  development  of  pupils  ;  and 
they  have  shown  that  a  philosophical 
system  of  education  will  recognize  these 
differences,  and  apply  the  principles  in 
the  arrangement  of  schools  and  in  the  construction  of 
school-houses. 

When  pupils  of  all  ages  and  states  of  advancement  are 
brought  together  into  one  room  for  the  purposes  of  educa- 
tion, as  in  our  ordinary  district  schools,  the  work  of  in- 
struction is  very  imperfectly  performed.  The  quietness 
and  attention  to  study  necessary  to  the  progress  and  high- 
est success  of  an  advanced  school  cannot  be  enforced  in 
primary  classes  without  seriously  injuring  the  pupils,  both 
physically  and  mentally  ;  and  conversely,  the  frequent 
change  of  position  and  noise  incident  thereon,  indispensa- 
ble to  primary  classes,  cannot  be  permitted  in  a  more 


DESIGNS    AND    ELEVATIONS. 


123 


OUR   SCHOOL-HOUSES. 


125 


DESIGNS    AND   ELEVATIONS.  127 

advanced  school  without  a  relaxation  of  discipline  and  an 
interference  with  study  incompatible  with  its  highest  in- 
terests. 

Again,  the  kind  of  instruction  and  the  methods  of  im- 
parting it  are  essentially  different  in  the  two  cases.  With 
primary  classes  the  instruction  should  be  confined  princi- 
pally to  the  elements  of  science  objectively  presented,  and 
made  interesting  by  appealing  directly  to  the  senses.  The 
subject  of  instruction  should  be  gradually  developed,  and 
the  lessons  principally  oral.  In  the  higher  schools  this 
system  is  changed.  The  primary  knowledge  having  been 
gained,  the  expanding  minds  instinctively  seek  generaliza- 
tions and  principles.  This  requires  quiet  for  thought, 
study,  and  reflection  ;  and  this  quiet  is  not  attainable  in 
a  room  when  primary  instruction  is  properly  going  on. 
Our  schools  can  never  reach  their  highest  state  until 
these  two  incompatible  states  of  discipline  and  instruction 
are  finally  and  effectively  separated. 

Among  the  other  faults  of  ungraded  schools  may  be 
enumerated  the  following :  1st.  The  difficulty  of  having 
the  school-room  properly  seated  so  as  to  accommodate 
all  sizes  of  pupils.  2d.  The  great  range  of  studies  neces- 
sary to  be  pursued  at  the  same  time,  rendering  it  difficult 
for  the  teacher  to  reach  a  high  degree  of  excellence  in  the 
teaching  of  any.  3d.  The  great  number  of  classes,  allow- 
ing the  teacher  an  entirely  inadequate  portion  of  time  to 
each,  and  causing  him  to  hurry  from  one  to  the  other  so 
rapidly  that  he  cannot  do  justice  to  any.  4th.  The 
confused  and  desultory  manner  in  which  instruction  is 
carried  on  renders  the  school  unattractive  both  to  pupil 
and  parent,  and,  consequently,  there  is  little  interest 
manifested  in  its  welfare. 

These  difficulties  will  never  be  entirely  removed  until 
our  schools  are  graded,  and  there  has  been  developed 


128 


OUR   SCHOOL-HOUSES. 


and  applied  a  complete  and  thorough  system  of  instruc- 
tion. This  system  should  embrace,  substantially,  the 
whole  course  now  pursued  in  our  common 
schools,  academies,  and  colleges,  open  to  all, 
but  allowing  each  individual  to  take  only  such 
portions  of  the  advanced  course  as  suits  his 
inclination  and  circumstances.  The  applica- 
tion of  the  different  portions  of  this  system  to 
the  different  grades  of  schools,  and  the  nice 
adaptation  of  its  progressive  parts,  are 
problems  which  demand  the  highest  wisdom 
.  67.  combined  with  the  largest  experience  ;  but 
when  once  solved,  they  will  be  of  incalculable  benefit  to 
.education  everywhere. 

When  such  a  system  of  instruction 
becomes  established,  the  schools  must  be 
more  efficient,  and  pupils  will  advance 
with  greater  rapidity.  Teachers  will  not 
be  left  in  doubt  as  to  what  course  to  pur- 
sue ;  for  a  specific  work,  arranged  for  each 
term  and  year,  must  be  accomplished. 
Teaching  will  progress  according  to  well- 
defined  principles,  instead  of  being  left  to 
individual  caprice.  The  gradation,  thor- 
ough system,  and  division  of  labor,  will 
effect  a  saving  of  time  equal  to  one-half  of 
the  entire  period  now  allotted  to  the  school- 
room, thereby  doubling  the  educational  advantages  of  our 
children.  The  means  of  a  liberal  education  will  be 
brought  within  the  reach  of  all,  at  a  cost  but  little  greater 
than  that  of  our  present  imperfect  and  inefficient  course. 

A  full  enumeration  of  the  advantages  of  the  proposed 
improvements,  and  of  the  changes  necessary  to  effect  it, 
would  fill  a  volume.  A  very  brief  view  of  the  main 


Fig.  68. 


DESIGNS    AND    ELEVATIONS. 


129 


DESIGNS    AND    ELEVATIONS. 


131 


Fig.  69. 


features  of  the  system,  as  far  as  they  relate  to  the  general 
organization  of  schools  and  the  building  of  school-houses, 
is  all  that  we  need  attempt  here. 

PRIMARY  SCHOOLS. — Primary  Schools  should 
embrace  a  five  years'  course  of  study,  extend- 
ing from  the  age  of  five  to  ten  years,  with 
pupils  of  the  average  ability.  They  should 
take  the  place  of  the  present  District  Schools, 
and  be  brought  within  the  reach  of  every  home 
in  the  land.  The  instruction  should  proceed 
in  a  regular  course,  and  the  pupils  should  be 
advanced,  year  by  year,  into  higher  classes, 
until  the  whole  five  years'  course  is  thoroughly 
mastered. 

INTERMEDIATE  SCHOOLS. — Intermediate  Schools  should 
embrace  a  four  years'  course  of  study,  continuing  the 
work  of  instruction  to  the  age  of  four- 
teen. They  should  be  made  up  of  a 
sufficient  number  of  pupils  from  the 
Primary  Schools  to  furnish  the  requi- 
site number  of  a  proper  grade.  The 
instruction  here  should  be  systematic, 
and  the  pupils  advanced,  year  by  year, 
as  in  the  Primary  Schools.  The  course 
of  study  in  these  schools  would  be  about 
the  same  as  that  now  pursued  in  our 
academies  and  in  the  higher  classes  of 
our  common  schools. 

HIGH  SCHOOLS.— High  Schools  should  Fig-70- 

embrace  a  four  years'  course,  carrying  on  instruction  to 
the  age  of  eighteen.  Such  schools  might  be  composed  of 
the  pupils  from  a  dozen  or  more  intermediate  districts. 
The  instruction  in  these  schools  would  be  equivalent  to 
that  of  our  ordinary  colleges,  though  perhaps  of  a  more 


132 


OUR   SCHOOL-HOUSES. 


Fig.  71. 


immediately  practical  character.  This  would  complete  the 
system  of  strictly  public  schools,  though,  beyond  them, 
those  of  a  special  character  would  be 
established, — all  necessary  to  the  per- 
fect development  of  a  scheme  of  Na- 
tional education.  Prominent  among 
these  would  be  the  following  : 

THE  UNIVERSITY. — The  University 
should  be  devoted  to  professional  in- 
struction in  the  departments  of  Science, 
Language,  General  Literature,  Law, 
Medicine,  and  Divinity.  It  should  be 
the  crowning  glory  of  all,  carrying  in- 
struction to  the  highest  point  attain- 
able in  our  present  civilization,  and 
elevating  civilization  itself.  It  should 
present  the  golden  opportunity  to  the  scholar  in  pursuit  of 
the  highest  culfure,  and  prove  the  perpetual  fountain  from 
which  knowledge  would  flow  downward 
through  all  the  grades  of  schools,  until  it 
reaches  every  inhabitant  of  the  land,  and 
elevates  humanity  to  a  higher  level.  The 
graduates  of  the  University  would  naturally 
become  the  teachers  of  the  High  Schools,  and 
from  these  last  would  come  the  great  mass  of 
the  teachers  of  the  Intermediate  and  Primary 
Schools. 

NORMAL  SCHOOLS. — Normal    Schools,    for 
the  professional  instruction  of  teachers,  would 
find  their  appropriate  place.     Such  persons 
Fig.  72.         onjy  ag  jja(j  mastered  the  High  School  course 
should  be  admitted  to  the  Normal  Schools,  and  the  two  or 
three   years   spent  in   them  should  be  devoted   to   the 
examination  of  the  laws  which  underlie  all  systems  of 


DESIGNS    AND    ELEVATIONS.  133 

instruction,  and  the  best  methods  of  putting  in  practice 
the  principles  so  developed.  Then  teaching  would  no 
longer  be  left  to  the  caprice  of  ignorance,  but  would  be 
intelligently  and  systematically  carried  on  by  persons 
masters  of  their  profession. 

WORK  SCHOOLS. — All  pupils  should  be  obliged  to  take 
the  course  marked  out  for  Primary  and  Intermediate 
Schools,  but  beyond  this,  entire  freedom  might 
be  allowed.  The  great  mass  of  pupils  would 
probably  not  wish  to  obtain  a  liberal  educa- 
tion, and  would  desire  immediate  entrance  into 
some  branch  of  industry.  For  the  accommo- 
dation of  this  class,  Work  Schools  should  be  Fiff.  73. 
established,  in  which  they  could  obtain  a  knowledge  of 
the  fundamental  principles  of  the  business  in  which  they 
are  to  be  engaged.  These  Work  Schools  would  include 
Mechanical,  Agricultural,  Mercantile,  Manufactures,  and 
Mining  Schools,  Schools  of  Design,  etc. 

When  this  system  of  graded  schools  becomes  the  ruling 
policy,  and  there  shall  be  established  Professional  and 
Work  Schools  to  perfect  it ;  when  all  these  are  consoli- 
dated and  crystallized  into  a  great  national  system,  reach- 
ing from  ocean  to  ocean,  and  so  ubiquitous  and  Argus- 
eyed  that  no  child  in  the  Republic  can  evade  its  sight  or 
escape  its  influence  ;  then  will  labor,  organized  into  sys- 
tem, be  respected  and  honored  by  all  men  ;  then  will 
each  individual  have  the  opportunity  and  all  the  neces- 
sary aids  to  secure  the  development  of  his  peculiar  talent 
in  the  direction  that  nature  designed  ;  and  then  we  may 
expect  a  higher  and  more  beneficent  civilization. 

In  cities,  villages,  and  the  more  thickly  populated  por- 
tions of  the  country,  the  systematic  gradation  of  schools 
can  be  easily  adopted,  and  the  great  advantages  arising 
therefrom  at  once  secured.  Indeed,  the  system  is  now 


134  OUR   SCHOOL-HOUSES. 

substantially  adopted  in  most  of  our  larger  cities.  In  the 
more  sparsely  settled  portions  of  the  country  it  is  difficult 
to  establish  any  general  system  that  is 
entirely  unobjectionable  ;  but  even  there,  a 
steady  policy  of  consolidating  districts  instead 
of  dividing  them  would  be  beneficial,  while 
Fte-?4-  the  entire  benefits  of  graded  schools  might 
be  realized  by  the  abolishment  of  districts  and  the  substi- 
tution therefor  of  town  schools.  This  matter  is  considered 
of  such  importance  that  an  elaborate  article  upon  the 
subject,  from  the  very  able  report  of  the  Secretary  of  the 
Vermont  Board  of  Education,  is  inserted  in  the  Appendix. 
Where  the  gradation  of  schools  has  been  established, 
two  or  more  grades  are  often  united  in  one  building, 
under  the  distinctive  name  of  "Union  Schools;"  and 
Union  School-houses  have  become  one  of  the  "institu- 
tions" of  the  land.  These  houses,  of  necessity,  must  be 
larger  and  more  costly  than  the  common  District  School- 
houses  ;  yet  the  cost  must  be  far  less  than  the  aggregate 
cost  of  several  separate  houses  affording  the  same  accom- 
modations. The  lot,  out-buildings,  and  general  surround- 
ings of  a  Union  School-house  will  cost  no  more  than  those 
belonging  to  each  of  the  smaller  houses  ;  so  the  argu- 
ment, on  the  score  of  economy,  is  entirely  in  favor  of 
Union  School-houses. 

The  comparison  is  sometimes  made  between  the  cost 
of  a  large,  well  built,  and  commodious  Union  School- 
house,  possessing  all  the  modern  improvements,  and  that 
of  several  of  the  old-fashioned,  ill-constructed,  and  miser- 
ably-furnished houses,  where  children  were  packed  almost 
to  suffocation,  and  the  balance  has  been  in  favor  of  the 
latter ;  but  it  is  unnecessary  to  say  that  such  a  comparison 
is  one-sided  and  unfair,  and  that  to  make  it  of  any  value, 
the  same  conditions  must  be  preserved  in  the  two  cases. 


DESIGNS   AND    ELEVATIONS. 


135 


DESIGNS    AND    ELEVATIONS.  137 

Several  of  the  succeeding  plans  are  well  adapted  to  the 
wants  of  consolidated  districts,  and  of  Union  Schools  of 
two  or  more  departments.  No  effort,  however, 
has  been  made  to  give  a  complete  series  of 
Union  School-houses,  as  such  a  series  would 
be  incompatible  with  the  general  design  of  this 
work.  Plans  for  larger  and  more  elaborate  Union 
School-houses  are  left  for  a  subsequent  work, 
in  which  the  whole  subject  of  village  and  city 
school-house  architecture  shall  be  fully  discussed. 
The  series  here  given  includes  houses  with  ac- 
commodation for  sufficient  pupils  to  require  the  

employment  of  from  one  to  four  or  five  teachers.       Fis-  75. 

An  effort  has  been  made  to  present  designs  which  will 
not  only  answer  for  immediate  use,  but  will  be  permanent. 
In  the  construction  of  school-houses,  it  has  too  often  been 
the  case  that  present  necessities  alone  have  been  provided 
for,  and,  in  consequence,  the  structures  have  been  of  the 
most  transient  character,  causing  the  whole  school  system 
to  appear  equally  transient  and  unstable,  and  rendering 
necessary  a  heavy  outlay  for  rebuilding. 

In  Massachusetts,  where  the  old  system  of  independent 
districts  has  been  in  operation  for  nearly  two  centuries, 
the  schools  of  each  town  have  recently  been  consolidated 
into  a  Union  district  with  its  primary,  intermediate,  and 
high  schools.  The  result  of  the  experiment  has  beeii 
satisfactory  in  the  extreme. .  A  genuine  educational  re- 
vival has  taken  place.  Much  more  attention  is  paid  to 
schools  on  the  part  of  communities,  a  constant  demand  is 
made  for  better  qualified  teachers,  and  large  numbers  of 
new  and  improved  school-houses  have  been  erected.  All 
parties  interested  unite  in  commendation  of  the  new  system, 
as  greatly  superior  to  the  old  in  efficiency  and  in  the 
economic  expenditure  of  money. 


138 


OUR   SCHOOL-HOUSES. 


DESIGN  VI. 

The  plan  of  Design  VI.  is  like  that  of  Design  V.,  with 
the  addition  of  a  building  in  the  rear,  and  the  grouping 
of  the  windows  together.  The  school- 
room is  thirty  feet  square,  and  has  seats 
for  seventy  pupils.  By  increasing  its 
length  respectively  three  or  six  feet,  it 
will  be  made  to  accommodate  eighty  or 
ninety  pupils,  and  by  increasing  its  length 
six  feet  and  its  width  four  feet,  there 
will  be  room  for  one  hundred  and  eight 
seats.  The  rear  building  may  be  used 
as  a  wood-room,  or  it  may  be  made  into 
one' or  two  recitation-rooms. 

The   entrance   to   the   recitation-room 
may  be  from  the  school-room  or  from  the 
halls.    The  recitation-room  may  be  heated 
Fig.  76.  by  a  hot-air  pipe,  extending  from  one  of 

the  stoves  in  the  school-room. 

Once  more  special  attention  is  called  to  the  arrange- 
ments of  the  windows  and  the  ventilation  of  this  building. 
The  windows  are  grouped  together,  and  it  is  believed  that 
this  arrangement  will  be  considered  the  best  possible  for 
a  school-room,  after  it  has  received  a  fair  trial.  It 
furnishes  a  broad  unbroken  light,  and  in  summer  it  will 
permit  cooling  draughts  to  circulate  through  the  room 
whenever  the  air  has  any  motion. 

In  winter  the  doors  and  windows  must  be  kept  closed, 
so  that  the  air  may  be  permitted  to  circulate  in  the  chan- 
nels provided  for  it.  In  this  way  the  room  will  be  kept 


DESIGNS   AND    ELEVATIONS. 


139 


v-- 


DESIGNS    AND    ELEVATIONS. 


141 


DESIGNS    AND    ELEVATIONS. 


143 


warm  in  every  part,  a  strong  current  of  pure  air  is  con- 
stantly entering  the  room,  and  the  foul  air  is  as  constantly 
flowing  out.  We  cannot  too  often  or  too  strongly  urge 
the  importance  of  providing  for  this  perfect  ventilation  in 
the  construction  of  school-houses. 


Fig.  77. 

Designs  Y.  and  VI.  each  have  two  fronts,  with  separate 
entrances  for  the  sexes,  but  one  might  be  omitted  if 
thought  advisable,  and  the  space  of  the  en  try- way  might 
be  used  as  a  clothes-room  or  extra  recitation-room.  It 
would  be  better,  however,  to  retain  both  entrances. 

ELEVATION  No.  1. — This  elevation  represents  a  plain 
wood  building  finished  with  battens.  The  roof  is  suffi- 
ciently steep  for  either  slate  or  shingles.  The  plainness 
of  the  cornice  has  been  relieved  by  ornamental  scroll- 
work, which  may  be  omitted.  The  windows  are  grouped 
together  in  the  whole  series,  giving  broad  and  continuous 
light. 

The  hoods  over  the  doors  and  windows  are  simple,  and 
they  give  an  additional  beauty  to  the  structure.  This 


1  44  OUR   SCHOOL-HOUSES. 

building,  with  some  simple  changes,  might  be  made  of 
brick.  If  built  of  wood,  it  can  be  finished  with  the  ordi- 
nary siding. 

ELEVATION  No.  2. — In  this  elevation  we  have  a  more 
ornamental  design.  A  cupola  has  been  added  for  a  bell- 
tower,  and  gables  have  been  erected  over  the  doors  and 
windows,  to  relieve  the  monotony  of  the  outline.  The 
gable  over  the  door  affords  an  opportunity  for  the  con- 
struction of  a  very  desirable  open  porch.  The  window- 
.gable  allows  the  window  to  be  treated  in  an  elegant 
manner,  and  the  finish  of  both  the  sides  and  end  gives  to 
the  building  a  very  fine  appearance.  It  will  be  noticed 
that,  in  the  picture,  the  roof  is  slightly  curved  toward  the 
eaves.  This  feature  adds  to  the  architectural  beauty  of 
the  design,  but  it  may  be  omitted,  and  still  a  good  effect 
be  produced.  This  design  may  be  of  wood,  brick,  or 
stone.  If  built  of  wood,  the  batten  finish  would  be  most 
in  keeping  with  the  general  style  of  the  structure. 

ELEVATION  No.  3. — This  elevation  in  general  resem- 
bles No.  2,  but  is  changed  in  many  of  its  details.  The 
roof  is  straight,  and  comes  down  much  lower.  The  win- 
dows and  door-gables  are  elegant  in  design,  and  they  are 
finished  with  simple  stone  copings.  The  cupola  grows 
out  of  the  structure,  and  is  an  integral  part  of  it,  which 
cannot  be  omitted  without  destroying  the  general  symme- 
try of  the  design.  The  materials  of  this  building  should 
be  brick  or  stone,  and  the  roof  should  be  slate.  The 
pointed  arches  for  the  window-heads  and  doors  give  to 
the  design  a  richness  of  appearance  which  fit  it  admira- 
bly for  a  village  school,  to  occupy  a  prominent  and  sightly 
position. 

ELEVATION  No.  4. — This  design  is  more  elaborate  and 
quaint  than  any  of  the  preceding.  It  has  several  of  the 
features  of  the  older  Gothic  forms.  The  roofs  are  high 


DESIGNS    AND    ELEVATIONS. 


145 


DESIGNS    AND    ELEVATIONS. 


147 


DESIGNS   AND   ELEVATIONS.  149 

and  pointed,  and  each  gable  ends  in  a  pinnacle.  The 
pinnacle  of  the  front  gable  forms  the  bell-tower,  and  this 
tower  commences  with  a  stone  projection  just  above  the 
window-heads.  The  gables  are  all  finished  with  stone 
copings  instead  of  cornices.  The  doors  and  windows  are 
projected  outward  from  the  sides  of  the  building,  and  the 
door-gable  terminates  in  the  chimney,  the  flues  of  which 
are  carried  up  in  the  door-projection.  The  rear  of  the 
door-gable  is  carried  up  straight,  like  similar  projections 
in  this  style  of  architecture.  The  roof  comes  down  below 
the  gable  copings,  making  the  walls  of  the  building  com- 
paratively low. 

ELEVATIONS  Nos.  5  AND  6. — These  elevations  represent 
substantially  the  same  kind  of  architecture  as  No.  4,  with 
changes  and  modifications  in  details.  They  represent  a 
later  style  of  architecture,  but  still  one  quite  ancient.  The 
modifications  of  the  gables,  cupolas,  door-ways,  window- 
heads,  and  general  style  of  finish  are  represented  in  the 
engraving,  and  need  no  verbal  description. 

These  designs  are  more  costly  than  the  plain  ones,  but 
in  districts  where  there  is  sufficient  wealth  to  warrant  the 
outlay,  there  can  be  no  doubt  in  regard  to  the  propriety 
of  erecting  buildings  of  this  kind.  They  are  ornaments 
to  the  village  ;  they  assist  in  educating  the  community  to 
a  higher  appreciation  of  architectural  forms,  and  of  the 
beautiful  in  art ;  they  are  attractive  places,  and  children 
are  easily  taught  to  take  pride  in  them,  and  in  their  pres- 
ervation. In  No.  5  the  pinnacles  upon  the  gables  have 
been  omitted  to  show  how  important  they  are  in  the  full 
development  of  the  Gothic  designs.  The  elevation  ap- 
pears bare  and  unfinished  when  compared  with  those  in 
which  the  pinnacles  are  admitted.  In  Gothic  forms  the 
only  proper  way  to  avoid  the  use  of  pinnacles  is  to  drop 
the  corners  of  the  roof,  as  in  Elevation  No.  3,  Design  III. 


150  OUR   SCHOOL-HOUSES. 

Either  of  the  five  preceding  designs  would  make  a  fine 
country  church,  chapel,  or  session-room.  The  materials 
for  the  construction  should  be  brick  or  stone,  and  the 
copings  of  the  gables  should  be  cut  stone.  In  designs  of 
this  character  no  attempt  should  be  made  to  reduce  the 
cost,  by  changes  of  form,  or  by  the  use  of  cheap  and  poor 
materials.  Where  economy  is  essential,  some  of  the 
cheaper  forms  of  buildings  should  be  adopted,  and  no 
effort  wasted  in  endeavoring  to  build  elaborate  structures 
at  little  cost,  or  to  produce  fine  architectural  effects  with 
inadequate  materials.  In  each  of  these  structures  great 
care  must  be  taken  to  have  the  foundation  firm  and  secure. 
The  roof,  also,  being  a  very  prominent  feature,  should  be 
accurately  made,  and,  if  possible,  covered  with  slate. 

In  making  choice  between  these  different  elevations, 
care  should  be  ta^en  to  select  such  as  will  be  found  to 
harmonize  best  with  the  surrounding  scenery.  Pointed 
gables  and  pinnacles  will  generally  be  found  best  adapted 
to  a  hilly  country,  while  the  broad  roofs  and  projecting 
eaves  will  be  more  in  harmony  with  the  scenery  of  a  level 
region.  Again,  there  will  be  ample  opportunity  for  the 
display  of  taste  in  deciding  upon  fitness  in  regard  to 
situation,  whether  upon  the  hill-side  or  valley,  whether  in 
the  village  or  strictly  rural  region,  and  whether  in  an 
open  exposed  place  or  nestled  in  some  sheltered  woody 
nook. 


DESIGNS    AND    ELEVATIONS. 


151 


DESIGNS    AND    ELEVATIONS. 


153 


DESIGNS    AND    ELEVATIONS. 


155 


DESIGN  VII. 

The  plan  of  Design  VII.  represents  a  building  with 
two  school-rooms,  and  another  large  room  which  may  be 
used  as  a  single  recitation-room,  or  divided  into  two. 
The  school-rooms  are  separated  by  sliding  doors,  so  that 
they  may  be  thrown  into  one  when  occasion  requires. 
Each  room  may  be  made  to  accommodate  forty-two,  fifty- 
six,  or  sixty-four  pupils,  without  essentially  changing  the 
appearance  of  the  building.  The  porches  in  front  are 
ample  for  entry-ways  and  cloak-rooms.  By  a  little  addi- 


Fig.  78. 

tion  to  the  width  of  the  front  projection,  room  would  be 
obtained  for  staircases,  and  the  building  might  be  made 
two  stories  in  height. 

ELEVATION  No.  1. — The  roof  of  the  main  building  is 


156 


OUR   SCHOOL-HOUSES. 


Fig.  79. 


put  on  at  right  angles  to  the  roofs  of  the  front  and  rear 
projections,  and  all  these  are  finished  with  gables.  The 
eaves  of  the  three  buildings  are  of  the  same 
height,  and  an  ornamental  cornice  is  made 
to  extend  across  the  gables.  The  cornices 
have  a  moderate  projection  and  are  finished 
with  modillions.  The  pitch  of  the  roof  is 
as  little  as  is  compatible  with  the  use  of 
shingles.  The  window  and  door  heads  are 
rounded  arches,  and  a  string-course  is 
made  in  the  wall  at  the  base  of  the  window 
and  door  caps.  These  caps  should  be  made 
m  of  stone  of  two  different  colors,  and  cut  to 
conform  to  the  circle  of  the  arch.  A  good 
effect  may  be  produced  by  making  these  of 
brick  and  stone  combined.  The  cupola  is 
needed  to  give  completeness  to  the  building,  but  it  may  be 
omitted.  The  materials  of  this  building  should  be  brick 
or  stone. 

ELEVATION  No.  2. — This  elevation  represents  a  very 
plain  building,  which  may  be  built  of  wood,  brick,  or 
stone.  The  main  building  has  a  square  hip-roof,  and  the 
projections  have  ordinary  roofs  with  the  corners  cut  off, 
and  each  side  is  relieved  by  a  vertical  projection.  The 
cupola  is  a  necessary  part  of  the  structure.  The  window- 
heads  are  square,  to  correspond  with  the  general  charac- 
ter of  the  elevation.  If  built  of  wood  the  finish  might  be 
of  battens  or  clap-boards,  but  the  former  would  best 
accord  with  the  general  style.  The  low  roof,  the  brack- 
eted cornice,  and  the  general  structure  of  this  building 
admirably  fits  it  for  a  prairie  region. 

ELEVATION  No.  3. — This  is  a  plain  wooden  structure, 
finished  with  battens.  The  projecting  cornice  is  orna- 
mented with  filigree- work,  which  may  be  omitted.  The 


DESIGNS    AND    ELEVATIONS. 


15' 


DESIGNS    AND    ELEVATIONS. 


159 


DESIGNS    AND    ELEVATIONS. 


161 


windows  and  doors  are  ornamented  with  simple  projecting 
hoods,  put  on  in  the  form  of  gables. 

ELEVATION  No.  4. — This  elevation  represents  a  struc- 
ture with  several  features  of  the  Gothic  architecture.  The 
roofs  are  all  steep,  and  the  gables  terminate  in  pinnacles. 
The  window  and  door  heads  are  pointed  arches,  and  the 
cupola  is  finished  in  similar  forms.  A  sill-course  extends 
around  the  building  level  with  the  window-sills.  The 
materials  should  be  brick  or  stone,  and  the  roof  should 
be  slate. 


Fig.  80. 

ELEVATION  No.  5. — In  this  elevation  we  have  another 
design  with  high  steep  roof  and  pointed  gables.  The 
window-heads,  however,  are  square,  and  the  gables  are 
finished  with  a  stone  coping,  which  gives  the  structure  a 

11 


162  OUR   SCHOOL-HOUSES. 

rich  appearance.  To  break  the  monotony  of  the  roof, 
little  gables  are  projected  over  the  doors  and  over  the 
windows  of  the  rear  building.  The  cupola  and  ornamen- 
tal chimneys  are  essential  parts  of  the  building.  The 
materials  should  be  brick  or  stone,  and  the  window  orna- 
ments and  copings  should  be  cut  stone.  This  elevation 
would  be  a  fine  design  for  a  suburban  or  village  dwelling, 
the  only  change  necessary  being  in  the  inside  structure. 

ELEVATION  No.  6. — This  elevation  represents  a  very 
plain  and  cheap  structure  of  wood,  the  plainest  form  in 
which  this  general  design  can  be  represented.  The  finish 
is  with  battens.  The  roof  has  a  plain  and  wide  projecting 
cornice,  giving  a  comfortable  appearance  to  the  design. 
The  corners  of  the  projections  are  made  to  fall  below  those 
of  the  main  building  for  cheapness  of  structure  and  for 
variety  in  appearance.  The  windows  of  the  school-rooms 
are  grouped  together.  A  bell-tower  may  be  added  to  the 
centre  of  the  roof  if  needed.  This  is  a  fine  design  for 
prairies  and  level  country  places,  and  it  would  by  no 
means  be  considered  out  of  place  in  a  village. 

ELEVATION  No.  7. — This,  the  last  of  the  series,  is  a 
very  plain  and  substantial  building.  Its  various  features 
are  happily  blended,  and  its  general  appearance  is  fine. 
The  roof  is  steep,  but  the  gables,  instead  of  terminating  in 
pinnacles,  are  cut  off,  and  the  windows  terminate  in  pointed 
arches.  The  large  window  in  the  principal  gable  is  fin- 
ished in  a  comparatively  cheap  form,  yet  it  is  so  arranged 
as  to  become  a  prominent  and  beautiful  feature  in  the 
building. 

The  materials  should  be  brick  or  stone,  though  wood 
may  be  used.  The  cupola  is  an  essential  part  of  the 
building,  and  cannot  be  omitted. 


DESIGNS    AND    ELEVATIONS. 


163 


DESIGNS    AND    ELEVATIONS 


165 


DESIGNS    AND    ELEVATIONS.  167 


CONCRETE   FOR   BUILDING. 

In  erecting'  houses  of  considerable  size  and  cost,  due 
attention  should  be  paid  to  durability.  If  the  present 
generation  leave  as  a  legacy  to  4heir  descendants  excellent 
school  buildings,  the  next  generation  may  be  supplied 
with  the  apparatus  and  physical  appliances  necessary  to 
secure  the  highest  success  of  the  school.  If,  on  the  con- 
trary, our  children  must  be  heavily  taxed  for  school- 
houses,  the  era  of  school  improvement  in  regard  to 
methods,  libraries,  and  cabinets,  must  be  postponed  for 
another  generation.  . 

Wood  is  the  material  most  commonly  used  in  the  con- 
struction of  school-houses,  on  account  of  its  cheapness  ; 
and  it  answers  a  very  good  purpose  for  the  building  of 
small  houses  and  for  those  that  are  designed  to  be  tem- 
porary. Permanent  houses,  however,  should  be  built  of 
brick  or  stone  ;  and  this  especially  should  be  the  case  in 
the  construction  of  the  more  elaborate  elevations  of  the 
designs  given  in  this  work. 

Stone  is  the  best  material  for  building  which  nature  has 
furnished,  and,  in  localities  where  it  can  be  procured  at 
little  cost,  it  should  always  be  used  in  the  construction  of 
school-houses.  Walls  of  stone,  well  laid  upon  permanent 
foundations  reaching  below  the  action  of  frost,  never 
crumble  or  crack,  never  shrink  and  shrivel  in  the  rays  of 
the  sun,  nor  warp  out  of  position  ;  but  they  stand  firm  and 
erect,  affording  shelter  and  protection  to  many  genera- 
tions of  children.  Tender  associations  have  time  to 
cluster  around  such  a  building,  and  the  spot  where  it 
stands  becomes  hallowed  by  the  vivid  and  ineffaceable 


168  OUR   SCHOOL-HOUSES. 

recollections  of  childhood.  The  clinging  mosses  and  the 
gray  lichens  that  clamber  over  its  surface  and  nestle 
lovingly  in  every  seam  and  crevice  ;  and  the  sombre  tints 
of  brown  that  time  spreads  over  its  entire  exterior,  make 
it  an  object  of  admiration  and  an  influence  at  once  ele- 
vating and  ennobling. 

Brick  may  be  used  when  good  building  stone  cannot  be 
procured,  but  it  lacks  the  solidity,  beauty,  and  durability 
of  stone.  When  brick  is  used  an  effort  should  be  made 
to  relieve  the  dreary  monotony  of  the  color  by  the  use  of 
stone  for  door  and  window  trimmings  and  for  corners. 
Brick  walls,  however,  left  hollow  or  well  furred  out,  afford 
a  much  better  protection  from  the  weather  and  are  much 
more  durable  than  wood. 

In  many  country  places  building  stone  cannot  be  ob- 
tained and  brick  is  too  expensive  for  economic  use.  In 
such  localities  substantial  walls  may  be  made  of  cobble- 
stone, gravel,  and  sand,  which  will  be  at  once  cheap  and 
durable.  Such  walls  are  known  as  concrete,  and  when 
correctly  built  have  all  the  solidity  of  the  best  stone. 

When  it  is  designed  to  build  a  concrete  house,  the  site 
should  be  located  near  a  bank  of  clean  gravel,  to  lessen 
the  expense  of  transporting  materials.  Excavations 
should  then  be  made  for  the  foundation  walls  below  the 
action  of  frost.  The  concrete  should  be  made  of  clean 
sand  four  parts  and  hydraulic  cement  one  part,  thoroughly 
mixed  when  dry,  and  then  wet  to  the  consistency  of  a  thin 
mortar.  In  the  use  of  coarse  gravel,  one  part  of  cement 
should  be  used  to  ten  parts  of  gravel.  The  excavation 
should  be  filled  with  this  mixture,  taking  care  to  use 
enough  of  the  sand  mortar  to  fill  all  the  interstices 
between  the  coarser  materials.  Stones  of  any  size  or 
shape  may  be  used,  only  each  should  be  thoroughly 
bedded  in  the  mortar. 


DESIGNS    AND    ELEVATIONS. 


169 


DESIGNS   AND    ELEVATIONS, 


171 


DESIGNS    AND    ELEVATIONS.  173 

About  one  foot  in  height  of  this  wall  may  be  built  per 
day  in  drying  weather.  From  the  surface  upward  curbs 
of  plank,  well  stayed  so  as  not  to  spring  or  warp,  should 
be  used  ;  and,  as  each  portion  of  the  wall  below  sets,  the 
curbs  may  be  elevated  to  receive  the  new  portion.  The 
hydraulic  cement  should  be  used  exclusively  to  a 
distance  of  one  or  two  feet  above  the  surface,  after 
which  cement  and  quick-lime  should  be  mixed  in  equal 
proportions. 

The  door  and  window  frames  should  be  set  in  their 
proper  places,  and  the  concrete  built  around  them  as  in 
ordinary  stone  or  brick  walls.  Care  should  be  taken  to 
continually  pack  the  mortar  by  tamping  it  with  a  stick 
prepared  for  the  purpose,  so  that  no  openings  will  be  left 
in  the  wall.  Moulds  of  any  form  may  be  used  for  the 
window-sills,  and  for  the  window  and  door  caps.  Orna- 
mental projections  may  also  be  made  at  the  corners  if 
desired. 

As  fast  as  the  work  progresses  the  outside  should  be 
covered  with  a  thin  coat  of  plaster,  made  of  clean  sand 
and  hydraulic  cement,  so  that  all  the  little  interstices  may 
be  filled  and  a  smooth  exterior  finish  secured.  When  the 
building  is  done  it  will  be  one  solid  stone  from  the  founda- 
tion to  the  top,  and  if  properly  built  will  be  almost  inde- 
structible. 

In  the  use  of  concrete  several  cautions  must  be  observed. 
The  cement  and  lime  used  must  be  fresh  and  of  good 
quality.  The  sand  should  be  moderately  coarse  and  clean. 
Neither  with  the  sand  nor  gravel  used  should  any  dirt  be 
admitted.  The  curbs  should  be  moved  with  care,  and  the 
work  built  no  faster  than  the  mass  below  sets. 

Where  sand,  gravel,  and  cobble-stone  are  easily  ob- 
tained, a  concrete  building  can  be  erected  more  cheaply 
than  any  other.  The  whole  of  the  work  may  be  done  by 


174  OUR   SCHOOL-HOUSES. 

unskilled  laborers  under  the  direction  of  one  competent 
foreman. 

The  use  of  this  material  in  building  largely  obtains  in 
many  parts  of  Europe.  The  late  aqueducts  and  sewers 
of  Paris  have  been  made  of  stone  manufactured  in  this 
manner,  and  the  stone  used  in  the  construction  of  the  Suez 
Canal  was  made  from  the  sands  of  the  desert  through 
which  it  passes.  In  the  vicinity  of  Paris  a  church  has 
been  erected  of  this  material,  which  is  one  solid  stone 
from  the  foundation  to  the.  top  of  the  cross  which  sur- 
mounts the  spire. 

This  concrete  may  also  be  used  economically  for  a  great 
variety  of  useful  purposes.  For  drains  and  sewers  it  is 
as  durable  as  the  most  costly  and  solid  masonry.  For 
floors  to  cellars  and  out-buildings,  where  solidity  and  pro- 
tection against  dampness  are  desirable,  it  is  the  best 
material  that  has  yet  been  devised.  It  can  be  readily 
moulded  into  any  desirable  form  for  window  and  door 
caps  and  sills,  and  the  ornamental  stone-work  of  archi- 
tecture. When  made  into  blocks  it  may  also  receive  any 
desired  color ;  and  in  this  manner  the  beautiful  in  form 
and  variety  in  color  can  be  secured  at  small  cost. 


DESIGNS   AND    ELEVATIONS. 


175 


DESIGNS    AND    ELEVATIONS.  177 


DESIGN   VIII. 

The  plan  of  Design  VIII.  represents  a  large  building, 
with  two  commodious  school-rooms,  and  a  large  recitation- 
room,  which  may  be  divided  into  two.  The  halls  in  front 
are  sufficiently  spacious  for  wardrobes,  and  for  staircases, 
if  an  extra  story  is  needed.  In  front,  opening  into  the 
front  halls,  are  two  small  rooms,  which  may  be  used  for 
fuel ;  they  are  so  arranged  that  no  dust  need  get  into 
the  rooms.  The  stoves  are  placed  in  niches  in  the  front  of 
the  rooms,  entirely  out  of  the  way.  The  ventilating  flues 
are  in  the  corners  diagonally  opposite.  With  due  care  in 
construction,  the  ventilation  of  these  rooms  will  be  perfect. 

The  light  is  admitted  to  the  school-rooms  upon  one  side 
only.  In  the  rear  of  the  school-rooms  are  two  small  rooms 
for  apparatus,  or,  if  there  is  a  supply  of  running  water, 
for  water-closets.  The  small  halls  in  the  rear  open  both 
into  the  recitation  and  school-rooms.  The  large  windows, 
properly  supplied  with  blinds,  will  afford  a  strong  and 
evenly  distributed  light,  and  one  that  can  -be  tempered 
and  controlled  at  will. 

ELEVATION  No.  1. — This  elevation  represents  a  plain 
substantial  building,  with  steep  roofs.  The  gables  are 
plain  and  terminate  in  pinnacles.  The  cupola  on  the 
centre  is  all  that  is  strictly  ornamental,  and  even  this  may 
be  omitted,  though  the  building  will  appear  much  better 
with  it.  The  doors  and  windows  terminate  in  round 
arches.  The  group  of  windows,  opening  into  the  school- 
room, gives  a  fine  architectural  appearance  to  that  side  of 
the  house.  In  front,  the  blank  wall  is  relieved  by  blank 
windows.  The  materials  for  the  building  may  be  wood, 
brick,  or  stone.  If  wood  is  used  the  finish  should  be 

12 


178 


OUR   SCHOOL-HOUSES. 


with  battens,  so  that  the  lines  may  be  vertical.  If  brick, 
the  ornamental  work  around  the  windows  and  doors 
should  be  of  cut  stone,  of  at  least  two  different  colors,  or 
of  brick  and  stone.  The  roof  should  be  of  slate,  though 
shingles  may  be  used. 


Fig.  81. 


ELEVATION  No.  2. — This  is  another  very  plain  and  sat- 
isfactory design.  The  roof  has  a  steep  pitch,  but  the  cor- 
ners of  the  gables  are  cut  down,  avoiding  the  necessity  of 
using  pinnacles.  The  front  is  ornamented  by  the  two 


DESIGNS   AND    ELEVATIONS. 


179 


DESIGNS   AND    ELEVATIONS. 


181 


DESIGNS   AND    ELEVATIONS.  183 

stately  doorways,  which  terminate  in  pointed  arches,  and 
the  blank  side- walls  are  broken  by  the  projection  of  the 
chimneys.  The  large  window  in  the  side  is  a  combination 
of  fine  forms,  and  the  whole  design  is  chaste  and  elegant. 
The  cupola  and  ornamental  chimney-tops  are  necessary 
parts  of  the  building. 

It  should  be  built  of  brick  or  stone,  though  wood  may 
be  used.  With  brick  as  the  material,  the  windows  and 
doors  should  be  finished  with  cut  stone  of  different  colors, 
or  of  stone  and  brick  alternately,  as  represented  in'  the 
engraving. 

A  fine  effect  would  be  produced  by  using  stone  in  a 
rough  state  for  the  walls,  and  ornamenting  the  windows, 
doors,  and  corners  by  projections,  the  courses  alternately 
of  different-colored  cut  stone.  It  may  be  built  of  wood, 
in  which  case  the  finish  should  be  with  battens.  The  fine 
effect  of  this  building  is  owing  to  the  judicious  arrange- 
ments of  the  parts,  as  it  is  exceedingly  simple,  and  would 
cost  but  little  more  than  the  plainest  form  that  can  be 
devised.  The  extra  cost  is  in  the  roof  and  window-heads. 

ELEVATION  No.  3. — This  elevation  represents  Design 
VIII. ,  finished  with  a  French  or  Mansard  roof.  In  the 
centre  a  square  hip-roof  terminates  in  a  cupola,  and  on 
the  sides  the  steep  French  roof  comes  down  to  the  cornice. 
The  top  of  the  steep  portion  is  surmounted  by  an  orna- 
mental open  balustrade.  The  walls,  windows,  and  doors 
are  like  those  of  Elevation  No.  1. 

The  French  roof,  in  general,  is  not  well  adapted  to 
buildings  of  one  story,  but  this  design  would  be  an  ad- 
mirable one  for  a  level  country,  or  for  hot  climates,  where 
it  is  necessary  to  have  considerable  space  between  the 
room  occupied  and  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun.  If  an 
extra  story  should  be  given  to  this  building,  the  French 
roof  would  appear  to  better  advantage,  and  the  design 
would  prove  admirable. 


184 


OUR   SCHOOL-HOUSES. 


DESIGN  IX. 

In  some  sections  of  the  country  the  octagonal  form  of 
buildings  is  popular,  chiefly  on  account  of  economy.  The 
same  amount  of  walls  and  roof,  in  an  octagon, 
will  inclose  a  greater  area  than  any  rectangu- 
lar form.  The  great  objection  to  this  building 
is  its  unsightly  appearance,  and  indeed,  an  oc- 
tagon, with  a  plain  hip-roof,  and  no  projections 
to  relieve  the  dead  monotony  of  its  walls,  has 
about  as  much  architectural  beauty  as  a  joint 
of  stove-pipe  set  upright.  In  the  elevations 
given,  an  effort  has  been  made  to  obviate  the 
difficulty  by  varying  the  outline  by  projections, 
and  by  carrying  the  roof  up  in  gables.  The  plan  is 


Fig.  82. 


Fig.  83. 


admirably  adapted  to  the  wants  of  a  small  school.     The 
room  is  compact,  well  lighted,  and  easily  ventilated.     In 


DESIGNS    AND    ELEVATIONS. 


185 


DESIGNS    AND    ELEVATIONS.  187 

warm  weather,  the  windows  and  doors  can  be  opened 
upon  seven  sides,  insuring  a  circulation  of  air.  Upon 
two  sides,  porches  for  entrances  have  been  built,  and  the 
doors  to  these  are  on  the  sides  rather  than  in  front. . 

The  elevation  of  this  design  is  so  placed  that  we  stand 
directly  in  front  of  one  of  the  porches,  and  have  a  view 
of  the  front  of  the  building  and  the  door  of  the  other 
porch.  The  chimney  is  projected  from  the  wall  so  as  to 
relieve  the  blank  space,  and  the  top  is  finished  for  a  bell- 
tower.  The  materials  may  be  of  wood,  brick,  or  stone, 
and  the  finish  of  any  kind  that  is  used  in  architecture. 
The  only  special  caution  necessary  in  constructing  this 
building  is  that  the  roof  shall  be  well  made.  The  gutters 
must  be  lined  with  metal,  which  should  be  held  in  its 
place  by  the  projecting  ends  of  the  shingles,  but  not  nailed. 
If  nailed,  water  will  find  its  way  through  the  nail  holes, 
and  the  frost  will  tear  the  metal  asunder. 


Fig.  84.     / 


188 


OUR   SCHOOL-HOUSES. 


This 
front. 


DESIGN  X. 

design  represents  an  octagon  with  a  projecting 
The  walls  are  sixteen  feet,  and  the  room  has  am- 
ple accommodations  for  sixty  pupils.  In  the 
front  are  two  fine  porches,  and  in  the  rear  is  a 
large  recitation-room  and  two  small  triangular 
Jback  passage-ways.  The  room  is  admirably 
lighted  by  the  windows  upon  the  two  sides,  and 
in  every  way  is  convenient  for  a  school. 

The  elevation  of  this  design  represents  the 
four  opposite  sides  thrown  up  into  gables,  all 
ending  in  pinnacles.    The  corners  of  the  gables 
may  be  cut  down   as  in  Elevation  No.  7,  of 
VIII.,  if  desired.     The  materials  may  be  wood  or 


Fig.  86. 


brick.     If  wood  is  used,  the  finish  should  be  with  battens. 
If  brick,  the  window-sills  should  be  cut  stone,  and  the 


DESIGNS   AND    ELEVATIONS. 


189 


DESIGNS    AND    ELEVATIONS.  191 

window-caps,  stone,  or  projecting  brick  arches.  The 
cupola  is  a  necessary  part  of  this  building,  and  should  not 
be  omitted. 

An  examination  of  this  plan  and  elevation  will  show 
that  it  is  admirably  adapted  to  the  purposes  of  a  school. 
The  sdhool-room  is  sufficiently  commodious  to  accommo- 
date a  sufficient  number  of  pupils  to  give  employment  to 
one  or  two  teachers.  It  is  well  lighted  and  ventilated. 
The  arrangement  of  seats,  blackboards,  stoves,  and  pas- 
sage-ways secures  at  once  comfort  and  convenience.  The 
ventilating  ducts  are  placed  at  the  farthest  extremity  of 
the  recitation-rooms,  and  openings  are  left  in  the  partition 
at  the  bottom  so  that  both  rooms  are  heated  and  ventilated 
by  the  same  apparatus. 

The  elevation  will  admit  of  many  changes  in  details. 
The  window  and  door  caps  may  be  finished  in  pointed 
arches,  and  the  cupola  may  be  made  more  open,  like  some 
of  the  preceding  designs.  In  the  construction  of  octagon 
buildings,  relatively  a  greater  saving  can  be  effected  by 
using  concrete  than  in  any  other  form.  The  curbs  used 
for  the  walls  can  be  as  easily  fitted  for  the  corners  as 
though  they  were  right  angles  ;  while  by  the  use  of  brick 
or  stone  a  considerable  expense  would  be  incurred  by  the 
extra  mason-work  in  shaping  the  corners. 


192 


OUR   SCHOOL-HOUSES. 


DESIGN  XL 


The  plan  of  this  design  is  very  much  like  that  of  Design 
VIII.,  but  with  the  front  halls  broadened  so  as  to  admit 


Fig.  87. 


of  the  construction  of  a  staircase  in  each,  in  case  a  two- 
story  building  should  be  needed. 


DESIGNS   AND   ELEVATIONS. 


193 


DESIGNS    AND    ELEVATIONS.  195 

Each  floor  consists  of  two  large  school-rooms,  and  a 
recitation-room,  which  may  be  divided  into  two  if  neces- 
sary. The  broad  light  coming  in  upon  one  side  only  is  in 
accordance  with  the  latest  scientific  authority,  and  the 
ventilating  apparatus  will  furnish  fresh  air  continually  and 
in  abundance. 

The  elevation  of  this  design  is  a  cheap  affair,  and  is 
given  rather  as  a  hint  than  as  a  design  to  be  copied.  For 
a  building  of  the  size  a  plainer  finish  could  scarcely  be 
devised.  Should  a  more  elaborate  roof  and  finish  be 
desired,  either  of  the  three  elevations  of  Design  VIII. 
might  be  copied.  The  Mansard  roof  of  Elevation  No.  3, 
Design  VIII.,  would  appear  much  better  on  a  two-story 
building  like  Design  XL 

This  elevation  is  the  last  of  the  series  in  this  work,  and 
it  serves  as  a  connecting  link  between  the  smaller  houses 
adapted  to  country  districts  and  the  more  elaborate  and 
varied  architecture  demanded  by  village  and  union  schools. 

In  most  villages  where  two  or  three  teachers  are  con- 
stantly employed,  a  two-story  house  much  larger  than  is 
required  for  the  daily  needs  of  the  school  should  be 
erected.  The  lower  floor  of  this  edifice  should  be  de- 
voted to  the  schools,  and  the  upper  floor  should  be  made 
into  a  public  hall.  In  this  manner  provision  can  be  made 
at  little  expense  for  the  accommodation  of  school  exhibi- 
tions, public  lectures,  and  the  like,  and  the  whole  would 
be  under  the  control  of  the  school  trustees,  and  would 
thus  become  a  part  of  the  educational  influences  of  the 
community.  The  profits  arising  from  letting  the  hall,  in 
most  cases,  would  pay  the  interest  on  the  money  invested, 
and  in  a  series  of  years  would  supply  the  school  with 
apparatus  and  a  library. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

FURNITURE. 

ALL  effort  at  reform  in  the  building  of  school-houses 
will  fall  far  short  of  accomplishing  its  object,  unless  it 
comprehends  a  radical  change  in  school-house  furniture. 
In  a  great  majority  of  our  country  districts  the  furniture 
used  is  of  the  very  rudest  description,  and  does  not 
answer  the  purposes  of  its  construction.  Even  in  sections 
of  the  country  where  education  has  received  considerable 
attention,  and  the  appearance  and  condition  of  the  school- 
house  have  been  improved,  the  old  desks  and  benches 
are  too  often  retained.  "We  have  already  alluded  to  the 
positive  evils  resulting  from  this  state  of  things.  Not 
only  are  the  pupils  rendered  physically  uncomfortable, 
but  their  bodies  are  often  permanently  injured,  and  their 
mental  improvement  seriously  retarded. 

The  whole  philosophy  of  this  subject  seems  to  lie  in  the 
proposition,  "  That  the  furniture  of  the  school-house  should 
be  such  as  will  conduce  to  the  health  and  comfort  of  the 
pupils,  and  to  the  general  convenience  of  the  whole 
school.'7  Anything  less  than  this  would  be  a  positive 
wrong,  and  ought  never  to  be  tolerated.  It  is  also  very 
desirable  to  take  one  step  farther,  and  make  the  whole  so 
attractive  that  it  will  have  a  direct  tendency  to  cultivate 
good  taste  and  refinement. 

School-house  furniture  is  of  two  kinds,  the  general  and 
the  special :  the  former  comprehending  all  the  articles 


FURNITURE.  197 

needed  for  preserving  order  and  cleanliness,  and  the 
latter  including  that  which  is  peculiar  to  the  school-room, 
such  as  desks,  seats,  tables,  and  the  like. 


GENERAL   FURNITURE. 

By  general  furniture  we  mean  all  the  apparatus  neces- 
sary for  convenience  and  cleanliness,  but  which  is  not 
necessarily  peculiar  to  the  school-room.  Were  it  not 
for  an  almost  culpable  negligence  on  the  part  of  school 
officers  generally,  it  would  not  be  necessary  to  speak  of 
these  matters  in  a  work  of  this  kind  ;  but  teachers  and 
pupils  are  often  seriously  incommoded,  and  schools  mate- 
rially injured,  by  inattention  and  neglect  in  such  little 
things.  All  of  the  following  articles  are  absolutely  indis- 
pensable to  the  highest  interests  of  the  school. 

SCRAPERS. — For  the  purpose  of  affording  facilities  for 
removing  mud  from  the  feet,  plank  or  stone  walks  should 
be  constructed,  and  steps  of  like  materials  should  be  put 
up  at  all  outside  doors.  These  walks  and  steps  should  be 
supplied  with  scrapers,  so  that  a  large  number  of  pupils 
can  use  them  at  the  same  time.  A  strip  of  band-iron 
securely  nailed  to  the  edge  of  a  plank,  so  that  the  edge 
of  the  iron  may  rise  half  an  inch  above  the  surface  of  the 
plank,  will  make  an  excellent  and  economical  scraper.  A 
great  variety  of  portable  scrapers  are  manufactured,  and 
can  be  easily  and  cheaply  procured  by  those  who  prefer 
them. 

MATS. — Every  outside  door  should  be  provided  with 
one  or  more  coarse  mats,  and  the  inside  doors  with  those 
of  a  finer  character.  Mats  made  of  the  husks  of  maize  are 
well  adapted  to  the  former  situation,  and  pieces  of  rag- 
carpet,  or  something  of  the  kind,  would  answer  well  for 


198  OUR   SCHOOL-HOUSES. 

the  latter.  Coarse  rope  matting  is  more  costly,  but  more 
durable  than  husks.  In  school-houses  of  more  than  one 
story,  it  would  be  well  to  carpet  the  staircases  with  rope 
matting  to  deaden  the  sound  of  passing  feet. 

BROOMS  AND  BRUSHES. — Having  taken  measures  to  pre- 
vent the  accumulation  of  dirt  in  a  school-room,  there  next 
should  be  provided  means  for  removing  that  which  will 
collect  in  spite  of  all  precautions.  Every  school-room 
should  be  thoroughly  swept  every  day,  and  the  floor 
should  be  well  scrubbed  at  least  once  a  week.  For  these 
purposes  a  broom,  a  floor  brush,  and  scrubbing-brush  or 
mop  should  be  provided.  A  small  floor  brush  is  indis- 
pensable in  removing  the  dirt  from  under  the  seats  and 
desks. 

PAILS. — A  mop-pail  must  necessarily  accompany  the 
mop  or  scrubbing-brush  ;  and  there  should  also  be  pro- 
vided a  pail  and  cups,  for  the  purpose  of  furnishing  the 
pupils  with  drinking-water  when  necessary. 

WASH-BASINS,  ETC. — In  the  back  hall  there  should  be  a 
sink  or  bench,  furnished  with  wash-basins  and  towels. 
As  personal  cleanliness  is  a  cardinal  virtue,  and  as  chil- 
dren cannot  always  avoid  becoming  dirty  while  at  school, 
the  means  for  removing  the  dirt  becomes  a  matter  of  prime 
necessity.  With  these  facilities,  teachers  need  never 
allow  pupils  to  enter  the  school-room  with  dirty  hands 
and  faces  ;  and  the  result  of  efforts  bestowed  in  this  direc- 
tion will  be  fixed  habits  of  personal  neatness,  which  will 
not  only  add  to  individual  health,  but  to  public  morality. 

UMBRELLA  STANDS. — A  water-tight  box,  or  half  of  a 
tight  barrel,  should  be  placed  in  each  of  the  front  halls  to 
receive  umbrellas,  and  to  prevent  the  annoyance  arising 
from  their  dripping  upon  the  floor. 

CLOTHES-HOOKS. — Pupils  should  never  be  allowed  to 
bring  their  hats,  bonnets,  and  extra  clothing  into  the 


FURNITURE.  199 

school-room  wheii  the  school-house  contains  a  hall.  In 
this  hall  substantial  clothes-hooks  should  be  placed  to 
afford  ample  accommodation.  These  hooks  should  be 
numbered,  so  as  to  prevent  the  confusion  arising  from 
having  several  claimants  for  one  hook.  Pins  made  of 
hard  wood  might  be  used  for  clothes-hooks  ;  and,  indeed, 
such  pins  would  be  much  better  than  the  common  iron 
hooks,  which  are  too  easily  broken. 

FIRE  APPARATUS. — Besides  the  stove,  several  other  fire 
utensils  are  necessary  for  convenience  and  safety.  When 
wood  is  used,  there  should  always  be  furnished  a  shovel, 
pair  of  tongs,  and  a  sheet-iron  ash-pail.  When  coal  is 
used,  a  scuttle,  poker,  and  screen,  in  addition  to  the 
above.  An  iron  ash-pail  is  indispensable  to  afford  pro- 
tection against  fire.  Many  a  school-house  has  been 
burned  in  consequence  of  storing  ashes  in  barrels  or  other 
vessel  of  wood. 

CLOCK. — All  system  in  school  operations  must  depend 
upon  the  proper  observance  of  time,  and  hence  a  good 
time-piece  should  be  provided.  A  clock  placed,  in  sight 
of  all  the  pupils  is  much  preferable  to  a  watch  in  the 
hands  of  the  teacher.  The  cost  of  a  good  clock  is  incon- 
siderable, and  no  good  reason  can  be  assigned  for  not 
providing  one  for  every  school-house  in  the  land. 

PROGRAMME  CLOCK. — A  school  clock  has  lately  been 
invented  and  brought  into  use,  so  constructed  that  it  may 
be  set  to  strike  at  any  times  desired.  When  the  teacher 
has  made  out  his  programme,  he  can  set  his  clock  to  strike 
at  the  close  of  each  exercise.  Teachers  and  pupils  are 
thus  automatically  reminded  of  the  school  order,  and  no 
one  is  obliged  to  watch  the  time,  and  so  have  his  attention 
diverted  from  the  work  on  hand.  This  clock  would  be  a 
desirable  acquisition  in  any  school, 

THERMOMETER. — For  the  preservation  of  health,  a  nearly 


200  OUR   SCHOOL-HOUSES. 

uniform  temperature  should  be  preserved.  But  our  own 
sensations  of  heat  and  cold  cannot  be  depended  upon,  as 
they  are  seriously  affected  by  our  physical  condition.  A 
thermometer  should  be  provided  as  a  guide,  and  to  pre- 
vent the  alternate  broilings  and  freezings  to  which  chil- 
dren are  so  frequently  subjected. 

In  most  cases  the  teacher  can  succeed  in  obtaining  these 
articles  of  general  furniture  by  properly  presenting  the 
matter  to  the  trustees  or  committee.  He  can  also  see  that 
they  are  all  put  to  their  proper  use.  In  the  matter  of 
cleanliness,  especially,  he  can  produce  radical  and  much 
needed  reforms  by  a  little  care  and  attention.  By  pre- 
cept and  example  he  can  create  a  public  sentiment  in 
his  school,  so  that  an  end  will  be  made  of  that  filthi- 
ness  which  is  so  common  in  our  country  school-houses, 
and  lasting  habits  of  neatness  may  be  formed  by  his 
pupils. 

Another  important  lesson  in  connection  with  furniture 
may  be  enforced  by  the  teacher,  viz.,  that  useful  articles 
should  be  used  and  not  abused.  The  destructive  propen- 
sities of  children  should  be  checked  at  an  early  period, 
and  they  should  be  taught  to  take  care  of  everything 
provided  for  their  education.  Indeed,  this  care  becomes 
an  important  element  of  education,  leading  to  wise  econo- 
mies and  habits  of  self-restraint.  Children  at  quite  an 
early  age  may  be  taught  that  saving  is  as  important  as 
earning,  and  that  economy  is  a  virtue  that  can  be  always 
shown  in  thoughtful  care. 


SPECIAL   FURNITURE. 

In  the  construction  of  seats  and  desks  the  following 
general  principles  should  be  observed  : 


FURNITURE.  201 

First :  They  should  be  substantial,  not  easily  broken  or 
disarranged.  The  furniture  of  a  school-room,  of  neces- 
sity, is  subjected  to  comparatively  rough  usage,  and  if 
made  weak,  its  frail  appearance  invites  arid  stimulates  the 
rudeness  which  destroys  it.  Strength,  then,  is  a  necessary 
condition,  not  only  to  preserve  it  from  ruin,  but  to  repress 
the  element  which  is  usually  precociously  developed  in 
children. 

Second:  They  should  be  easy  and  comfortable. 
Churches  are  usually  furnished  with  cushioned  seats, 
although  occupied  but  a  limited  portion  of  one  day  in  the 
week,  while  the  school-house,  which  is  occupied  five  days 
in  the  week,  is  supplied  with  rough,  ill-shaped  benches. 
This  custom,  to  say  the  least,  is  not  philosophical.  There 
is  no  good  reason  why  the  seats  in  our  school-houses 
should  not  be  more  comfortable  than  those  in  our  churches. 
This  general  rule  of  comfort  would  preclude  the  use  of 
seats  without  backs  of  suitable  form.  The  spines  of  chil- 
dren have  often  become  distorted  from  lack  of  support 
while  sitting  in  the  school-room.  The  sufferings  which 
those  little  frames  have  undergone  would  cast  in  the  shade 
the  horrors  of  the  "  middle  passage." 

Third :  The  seats  should  be  graded  to  the  different  sizes 
of  pupils.  This  principle  is  often  practically  violated,  and 
school-rooms  are  provided  with  seats  all  of  the  same  size. 
In  consequence,  either  the  larger  pupils  are  seated  much 
too  low  for  comfort,  or  the  smaller  ones  are  perched  so 
high  that  their  feet  cannot  touch  the  floor,  and  they  are 
obliged  to  maintain  a  constant  watchfulness  lest  they 
should  fall  from  their  dizzy  eminence.  With  this  latter 
class,  "to  sit"  becomes  an  exceedingly  active  verb,  and 
restlessness,  aches,  and  distortions  often  result. 

Fourth:  They  should  be  constructed  so  as  to  afford 
accommodation  to  the  pupil  and  to  all  his  educational 


202  OUR   SCHOOL-HOUSES. 

apparatus.  A  shelf  should  be  provided  for  packing  away 
books,  slates,  maps,  etc.,  and  a  permanent  inkstand,  to 
prevent  the  frequent  injury  and  disfigurement  resulting 
from  overturning  the  ink. 

Fifth :  They  should  be  neatly  finished,  so  as  to  be 
ornamental  as  well  as  useful.  In  this  case  beauty  serves 
the  strictly  utilitarian  purpose  of  protecting  •  from  injury 
as  well  as  a  higher  and  perhaps  more  important  one.  The 
rude  furniture  of  the  olden  time  was  soon  covered  with 
ink-spots,  cuts,  and  scratches  innumerable.  Elaborate 
jack-knife  carvings  overlaid  each  other  every  term,  until 
the  original  form  and  complexion  was  entirely  obliterated. 
Whenever  poorly  made  or  unpainted  furniture  is  used,  a, 
like  result  must  follow.  Well-finished  and  elegant  furni- 
ture, on  the  contrary,  has  often  been  in  constant  use  for 
years,  without  receiving  a  single  scratch,  the  beauty  pre- 
serving it,  as  well  as  serving  to  inculcate  habits  of  order 
and  carefulness.  School  furniture  should  be  finished  like 
fine  cabinet-work. 

In  their  arrangement  the  seats  and  desks  should  be  so 
placed  that  each  pupil  can  freely  pass  to  and  from  his  seat 
without  disturbing  others,  and  so  that  every  part  of  the 
room  is  accessible  to  both  pupil  and  teacher. 

To  meet  all  these  requirements,  single  or  double  desks 
are  generally  used.  The  former  are  preferable  on  many 
accounts,  but  as  they  are  more  costly  and  occupy  more 
room  than  the  latter,  they  will  probably  not  come  into 
general  use.  Double  desks  answer  all  the  demands  of 
education,  are  more  economical,  and  will  therefore  be 
usually  adopted.  In  the  seating  of  all  the  designs  in  this 
work  the  double  desk  has  been  used,  and  all  calculations 
in  regard  to  the  number  of  pupils  which  each  room  will 
accommodate  have  been  made  with  reference  to  them. 


FURNITURE.  203 


DIRECTIONS   FOR   CONSTRUCTING   DESKS. 

Clear,  well-seasoned,  hard  wood,  like  birch,  or  cherry, 
or  ash,  or  Connecticut  Valley  and  Canada  chestnut,  second 
growth,  is  the  best  material  of  which  to  construct  desks, 
as  it  is  firm  and  solid,  and  readily  admits  of  a  beautiful 
finish.  Desks  made  of  pine  or  other  soft  wood  are  too 
easily  scratched  and  damaged. 

Double  desks  should  be  three  feet  to  four  feet  long, 
and  from  ten  to  twenty  inches  wide,  depending  on  the  size 
of  the  pupils  to  be  accommodated. 

All  edges  and  corners  should  be  carefully  rounded,  and 
all  the  work  should  be  smoothed  and  well  finished. 

About  two  and  one-half  inches  of  the  farther  side  of 
the  top  should  be  level,  and  the  rest  slightly  inclined. 

A  groove  should  extend  across  the  level  surface  to  pre- 
vent pencils,  etc.,  from  rolling  off,  and  provision  should  be 
made  for  the  insertion  of  a  permanent  inkstand.  An 
opening  in  the  farther  edge  has  been  sometimes  made  for 
the  purpose  of  receiving  a  slate,  but  of  late  this  arrange- 
ment has  been  abandoned,  as  no  practical  good  results, 
and  the  appearance  of  the  room  is  injured. 

About  five  inches  below  the  top  of  the  desk  a  shelf 
should  be  placed,  two-thirds  as  wide  as  the  top,  and 
slightly  inclined  backward. 

The  standard  that  supports  the  desk  may  be  wood  or 
iron,  and  the  peculiar  manner  of  constructing  each  will  be 
fully  illustrated  in  the  diagrams  found  in  the  Appendix. 
Wood  is  cheaper,  but  iron  more  durable  and  less  liable  to 
get  out  of  repair. 

A  modern  style  of  seat  and  desk  is  made  to  fold  up,  to 


204  OUR   SCHOOL-HOUSES. 

allow  free  passage  between  the  desks,  to  permit  pupils  to 
rise  immediately  in  their  places,  and  to  afford  a  better 
opportunity  for  sweeping.  This  desk  will  be  more  particu- 
larly described  hereafter. 

The  following  table  shows  the  height  of  the  seats  and 
desks  of  the  different  grades  as  adopted  by  most  of  the 
school-furniture  manufacturers  : 


Height  of  Desk.  Width  of  Desk.  Height  of  Seat. 

(1)  Children's  Desk  and  Settee  18    in.  10 J-  in.  9J  in. 

(2)  Small  Primary        "        "  20     "  10 J-  "  11     " 

(3)  Primary                   "        "  22J  "  12     "  12     " 

(4)  Intermediate            "        "  25     "  15     "  13^  " 

(5)  Grammar  School    «        «  26£  «  15     «  15     « 

(6)  High  School           «        «  27J  "  15     «  16J  « 

(7)  Academic                "        "  29J  «  15     «  17     « 


The  desk  height  is  measured  at  front — back  edge  should 
be  one  and  a  half  inches  higher.  Seat  height  is  measured 
at  front — pitch  of  seat  should  be  one  and  a  quarter  inches. 

Lengths  of  desks  to  seat  two  pupils  of  the  Primary  and 
Intermediate  grades  should  be  three  feet,  and  for  the 
higher  grades  they  should  be  three  feet  and  six  inches. 
Too  much  care  cannot  be  taken  to  avoid  having  the  seats 
too  high.  This  is  a  common  fault,  and  is  very  injurious  to 
children. 

In  the  Supplement  to  this  volume  we  shall  give  elaborate 
illustrated  descriptions  of  the  best  modern  school-furni- 
ture. 


CHAPTER   IX. 

APPARATUS. 

IN  country  districts  the  opinion  is  quite  too  frequently 
entertained  that  when  a  school-house  has  been  constructed 
and  furnished  with  seats  sufficient  to  accommodate  the 
pupils,  nothing  more  is  needed  to  insure  the  success  of  the 
school.  The  necessity  and  importance  of  apparatus,  for 
the  purpose  of  establishing  facts  and  illustrating  principles, 
is  so  little  understood  and  appreciated  that  the  majority 
of  schools  are  as  destitute  of  these  appliances  of  instruc- 
tion as  though  no  advance  had  been  made  for  the  last 
hundred  years. 

On  the  other  hand,  teachers,  and  sometimes  trustees, 
with  more  zeal  than  discretion,  purchase  indiscriminately 
everything  that  offers  in  the  form  of  apparatus,  and  so 
waste  money  in  useless  articles.  It  is  a  mistaken  notion 
that  a  large  amount  of  costly  apparatus  is  necessary  to 
the  success  of  a  school.  In  our  academic  institutions 
quantities  of  different  articles  are  frequently  found  which 
have  cost  large  sums  of  money,  and  are  useless  from  not 
being  complete  or  from  misuse  and  neglect. 

These  extremes  are  to  be  avoided.  No  money  should 
be  wasted  in  the  purchase  of  useless  articles  in  incomplete 
sets,  but  the  things  essential  should  always  be  furnished. 
Fortunately  most  of  the  indispensable  apparatus  is  inex- 
pensive and  within  the  reach  of  all.  The  ingenious 
teacher  will  usually  explain  and  illustrate  his  lessons  by 


206  OUR   SCHOOL-HOUSES. 

the  aid  of  such  common  things  as  can  be  readily  obtained. 
He  can  also  do  an  excellent  work  by  so  presenting  the 
subject  that  the  pupils  themselves  will  be  induced  to  make 
their  own  experiments  with  apparatus  of  their  own 
devising. 


GENERAL  APPARATUS. 

BLACKBOARDS. — The  first  article  of  general  apparatus 
indispensable  in  every  school-room  is  a  blackboard. 
There  is  scarcely  a  single  exercise  in  the  school  but  may 
be  made  more  clear  and  interesting  by  the  use  of  the 
blackboard  and  chalk.  With  it  large  classes  are  taught 
with  as  much  facility  as  individuals  are  without  it,  and 
there  is  not  a  moment  in  the  day  when  its  aid  may  not  be 
required  to  elucidate  some  difficult  point,  or  to  teach  to 
the  eye  what  the  mind  does  not  distinctly  comprehend 
through  the  avenue  of  the  ear.  A  teacher  who  under- 
stands drawing  can  make  it  compensate  in  a  great  measure 
for  the  lack  of  almost  every  other  kind  of  apparatus.  We 
look  upon  the  blackboard  as  a  school-house  fixture  almost 
as  important  as  the  roof  or  foundation-stones  ;  and  in  this 
age  of  the  world  there  is  scarcely  a  corner  of  the  country 
so  benighted  where  an  effort  would  be  made  to  dispense 
with  its  use. 

The  blackboards  should  be  sufficient  in  number  and  in 
size  to  permit  all  the  members  of  an  ordinary  class  to 
work  at  the  same  time.  They  should  be  about  five  feet 
wide,  placed  two  feet  above  the  floor,  and  should  extend 
entirely  around  the  walls  of  the  rooms.  A  trough  should 
always  be  placed  beneath  the  board  to  catch  the  dust  and 
to  serve  as  a  shelf  for  chalk  and  wipers.  In  all  the 
designs  given  in  this  work,  the  blackboard  surface  has 


APPARATUS.  207 

been  intended  to  occupy  all  the  available  space  not  taken 
up  by  doors  and  windows.  The  very  best  and  cheapest 
blackboard  surface  is  made  by  applying  the  Eureka  Liquid 
Slating  to  a  thoroughly  well  made  and  smooth  hard -finished 
wall.  Care  should  be  taken  to  have  a  firm,  substantial, 
smooth,  and  dry  wall.  The  Eival  Liquid  Slating  answers 
about  the  same  purpose  and  is  somewhat  cheaper.  In  the 
Supplement  will  be  found  descriptions  of  blackboards  and 
all  the  necessary  accessories. 

GLOBES. — The  next  indispensable  article  of  general 
apparatus  is  a  globe.  Without  a  globe  a  teacher  cannot 
succeed  in  explaining  to  the  comprehension  of  children 
the  peculiarities  of  the  earth  upon  which  they  live,  or  the 
ordinary  phenomena  resulting  from  the  earth's  shape  and 
motions.  With  its  aid  he  can  accomplish  all  this,  and  can 
also  clearly  illustrate  and  define  such  geographical  terms 
as  children  very  seldom  understand,  and  can  correct  errors 
which  almost  inevitably  result  from  the  exclusive  use  of 
maps.  A  comparatively  small  and  cheap  globe,  with  the 
full  outline  of  the  natural  divisions  of  the  earth,  will 
answer  in  the  absence  of  one  of  the  larger  and  more 
expensive  globes. 


APPARATUS  FOR  PRIMARY  SCHOOLS. 

That  facts  must  precede  principles,  and  that  the  object 
of  primary  instruction  should  be  mainly  to  awaken  the 
attention  and  develop  the  powers  of  observation,  is  be- 
ginning to  be  fully  recognized  by  modern  educators.  The 
old  system  of  commencing  the  process  of  instruction  by 
forcing  children  to  learn  mere  abstractions,  is  well-nigh 
exploded.  It  is  now  considered  by  all  who  have  given 
much  attention  to  this  subject,  that  it  is  much  more  im- 


208  OUR   SCHOOL-HOUSES. 

portant  that  a  child  should  be  able  to  observe  all  that  he 
sees,  hears,  or  feels,  than  that  he  should  be  able  to  repeat 
by  rote  all  the  text-books  used  in  the  school.  In  culti- 
vating the  powers  of  perception  and  observation,  it  is  much 
more  effectual  to  speak  to  the  eye  than  to  the  ear ;  and 
by  children,  experiments  and  ocular  demonstrations  are 
much  more  easily  comprehended  than  any  statement  of 
principles  or  processes  of  logical  reasoning. 

To  carry  out  a  system  founded  upon  these  principles, 
it  will  be  necessary  to  change  the  course  of  instruction 
at  present  adopted  for  our  primary  classes,  and  to  furnish 
our  rooms  with  such  tangible  objects  as  will  convey  im- 
portant lessons,  and  furnish  the  proper  foundation  for  a 
philosophical  course  of  education.  Nature  has  furnished 
these  objects  of  sense  in  lavish  profusion,  and  there  is  no 
district  in  the  country  too  poor  to  have  a  bountiful  supply 
of  them.  But  here  the  labor  of  the  teacher  is  indispensa- 
ble, for  nature  never  betrays  her  secrets  unless  they  are 
sought  for,  and  the  minds  of  children  need  directing  until 
they  are  sufficiently  developed  to  investigate  and  experi- 
ment without  aid. 

We  might,  with  propriety,  denominate  this  system  of 
instruction,  "The  education  of  the  senses  by  means  of 
lessons  drawn  from  real  objects.'7  To  make  it  at  once 
intelligible  and  practical,  we  will  examine  it  under  the 
following  heads,  viz. : 

FORM. — Almost  the  first  thing  that  the  child  perceives 
and  comprehends  is  difference  in  form,  and  the  primary 
room  should  be  furnished  with  a  great  quantity  of  appara- 
tus to  illustrate  these  differences.  Forms  very  dissimilar 
should  first  be  taken,  and  the  pupils  should  be  gradually 
introduced  to  those  more  nearly  alike,  until  they  are  able 
to  accurately  discriminate  between  those  that  have  but 
very  slight  differences.  They  will  always  be  interested 


APPARATUS.  209 

in  these  exercises,  as  the  idea  is  taught  through  the  sense 
of  sight,  and  can  be  fully  comprehended  without  any  rea- 
soning process.  Care  should  be  taken  to  insure  perfect 
accuracy  of  observation  during  every  step  of  this  process, 
and  the  scientific  names  should  be  given  to  each  of  the 
different  forms.  Apparatus  for  the  teaching  of  form  might 
consist,  1st,  of  blocks  representing  geometric  solids  ;  2d, 
different  specimens  of  the  animal  kingdom  ;  3d,  the  differ- 
ent forms  of  the  stalks,  leaves,  and  seeds  of  plants  ;  and 
4th,  of  the  different  forms  assumed  by  minerals  and 
crystals. 

The  use  of  the  geometric  solids  will  introduce  the 
facts  and  first  principles  of  geometry ;  and  where  that 
science  is  taken  up  as  a  study,  the  pupil  will  be  already 
familiar  with  the  terms  used,  and  will  look  upon  it  as  an 
old  friend  rather  than  a  new  acquaintance.  The  inspec- 
tion of  the  different  specimens  of  the  animal  kingdom 
will  excite  an  interest  in  the  subject  of  natural  his- 
tory, and  the  transition  would  be  easy  from  an  observa- 
tion of  the  forms  of  animals  to  that  of  their  habits  and 
peculiarities.  The  examination  of  the  forms  of  plants, 
while  exceedingly  interesting  in  itself,  and  presenting  a 
great  variety  of  useful  information,  will  lead  directly  to 
the  study  of  botany,  in  which  is  enfolded  the  whole 
science  of  the  vegetable  kingdom.  To  understand  the 
peculiar  forms  of  minerals  and  crystals  requires  a  higher 
development  of  the  powers  of  observation  and  a  more 
mature  judgment ;  but  the  subject  can  be  easily  taught 
if  rightly  presented,  and  the  pupil  will  at  once  become 
interested  in  mineralogy.  By  this  system  the  child,  in 
time,  will  become  perfectly  familiar  with  all  kinds  of 
forms,  and  will  "be  able  to  accurately  describe  the  shape 
of  anything  that  he  sees. 

SIZE. — Nearly  the  same  objects  that  are  used  to  illus- 

14 


210  OUR   SCHOOL-HOUSES. 

trate  form  may  also  be  used  to  illustrate  size,  and  the 
results  will  be  nearly  the  same.  At  this  stage  there 
should  be  introduced  the  conventional  standards  of  meas- 
ure, and  the  pupils  should  be  taught  the  tables  of  measure 
practically  and  inductively.  The  apparatus  necessary 
would  consist  of  an  inch,  foot,  and  yard  rule  for  long 
measure,  blocks  representing  a  square  inch  and  foot  for 
square  measure,  cubical  blocks  for  solid  measure,  and  a 
variety  of  measures,  like  gill,  pint,  and  quart  cups,  gal- 
lon, peck,  and  bushel  measures,  etc. 

The  tables  should  then  be  taught  in  the  following  man- 
ner :  An  inch  measure  is  put  into  the  hands  of  a  child, 
and  he  is  required  to  draw  a  line  upon  the  blackboard 
just  as  long  as  the  measure,  then  to  the  end  of  this  he  is 
to  add  another  inch,  and  repeat  the  process  till  he  has 
drawn  a  line  twelve  inches  in  length.  He  is  then  in- 
structed to  call  this  whole  measure  a  foot ;  and  with  a 
foot  as  a  basis,  he  can  then  measure  a  yard,  rod,  etc.  So 
with  each  one  of  the  measures,  take  the  least  denomina- 
tion as  a  basis,  and  teach  its  name,  use,  and  the  number 
of  times  it  is  to  be  taken  to  make  one  of  the  next  higher 
denomination  before  the  name  of  that  denomination  is 
given.  A  box  or  barrel  of  clean  sand  should  be  furnished 
to  experiment  with  in  the  measures  of  capacity.  After 
becoming  acquainted  with  the  denominations  and  tables 
of  measure  in  this  practical  manner,  the  pupils  should  be 
encouraged  to  continually  apply  their  knowledge  in  the 
measurement  of  everything  within  their  reach.  They 
might  measure  the  dimensions  of  the  school-house,  the 
lengths  of  the  neighboring  fence  rails  and  posts  ;  and  in 
time  they  might  measure  the  distance  from  the  school- 
room to  their  respective  homes,  and  the  distance  around 
farm  lots,  thus  taking  the  first  practical  lessons  in  sur- 
veying. 


APPARATUS.  211 

WEIGHT. — The  difference  in  the  weight  of  objects  should 
next  be  considered.  In  this,  as  in  form  and  size,  almost 
every  natural  object,  from  the  pebbles  in  the  street  to 
the  most  delicate  organization,  can  be  used  for  illustra- 
tions and  experiments.  Conventional  weights  and  the 
tables  should  also  be  introduced,  and  a  balance  should  be 
procured  as  an  article  of  apparatus.  The  pupils  should 
be  taught  the  denominations  inductively,  as  in  the  tables 
of  measure  ;  and  they  should  experiment,  by  weighing 
everything  in  the  balance,  and  lifting  it  to  judge  of  its 
weight,  until  the  muscles  would  be  educated  to  determine 
the  weight  of  any  object  with  a  considerable  degree  of 
accuracy. 

COLOR. — The  differences  in  the  color  of  objects  should 
receive  early  attention,  and  every  school-room  should  be 
furnished  with  apparatus  illustrating  the  primary  colors, 
the  intermediate  shades,  and  the  neutral  tints.  In  all  the 
seasons  but  winter,  objects  illustrating  all  the  endless 
varieties  of  shades  of  color  may  be  obtained  from  among 
leaves  and  flowers  ;  and  by  their  aid  not  only  would  the 
senses  be  educated,  but  a  taste  for  the  beautiful  would  be 
cultivated. 

ORDER. — Order  can  be  systematically  taught  by  the' 
use  of  objects  already  enumerated.  Every  variety  of 
thing  may  be  classified  in  regard  to  form,  size,  weight, 
and  color,  and  each  class  may  be  put  in  its  appropriate 
place.  Exercises  of  this  kind  will  cultivate  habits  of 
external  order,  and  will  lay  the  foundation  of  that  sys- 
tematic arrangement  of  ideas  indispensable  to  the  highest 
progress  in  science  and  art. 

A  child  thus  trained  to  habits  of  observation  will  see 
and  hear  much  more  than  one  educated  in  a  different 
manner  ;  and  when  are  added  habits  of  critical  investiga- 
tion into  the  origin,  uses,  relations,  and  causes  of  things, 


212  OUR   SCHOOL-HOUSES. 

there  is  little  more  to  accomplish.  He  will  then  be  able 
to  enter  into  a  series  of  original  and  independent  examin- 
ations, and  he  can  see 

"  Books  in  the  running  brooks, 
Sermons  in  stones,  and  good  in  everything." 

There  is  not  an  object  in  all  art  or  nature  but  for  him 
will  have  its  lessons  of  wisdom. 

CABINET. — A  cabinet  of  curiosities  and  common  things 
should  be  collected  to  form  a  never-failing  reservoir  of 
objects  from  which  important  lessons  may  be  derived. 
This  cabinet  should  contain  specimens  of  the  different 
metals,  such  as  iron,  lead,  copper,  tin,  and  zinc  ;  of  the 
principal  minerals  which  enter  into  the  composition  of  the 
rocks,  such  as  quartz,  mica,  hornblende,  limestone,  and 
gypsum ;  of  the  most  common  chemical  products,  such  as 
salt,  saltpetre,  copperas,  alum,  and  soda ;  of  all  the 
minerals  in  the  neighborhood,  such  as  pebbles,  fragments 
of  the  rocks,  clay,  sand,  and  especially  such  rocks  as  con- 
tain fossils  ;  of  the  vegetable  world,  consisting  of  the 
leaves  and  flowers  of  all  the  plants  and  trees  of  the 
vicinity  ;  the  different  kinds  of  wood,  both  with  and  with- 
out bark  ;  the  different  grains,  like  corn,  wheat,  rye,  oats, 
barley,  and  rice  ;  other  articles  of  food,  like  sago,  tapioca, 
Irish  moss,  capers,  etc.;  and  the  different  articles  for 
household  use,  like  flax,  hemp,  cotton,  gums,  spices,  and 
fruits  ;  of  the  products  of  the  sea,  such  as  shells,  sponges, 
coral,  whalebone,  and  a  great  variety  of  other  articles  ; 
of  the  most  common  animal  products,  such  as  wool,  hair, 
wax,  bones,  ivory,  etc. ;  and  of  manufactured  articles, 
as  silk,  linen  and  cotton  fabrics,  leather,  paper,  parch- 
ment, crockery,  porcelain  and  glass  ware,  and,  indeed, 
everything  used  in  the  domestic  arts  and  in  common 
household  operations. 


APPARATUS.  213 

The  lessons  to  be  derived  from  the  specimens  of  the 
metals  and  minerals  might  include  an  examination  of  their 
peculiar  properties  and  qualities :  how  the  members  of  the 
different  classes  differ  from  each  other ;  where  they  are 
obtained,  the  process  of  obtaining  them,  and  the  agents 
necessary  to  effect  this  object ;  their  relative  value,  and 
their  several  uses  in  the  economy  of  the  world  and  in 
science  and  art.  The  examination  of  vegetable  and 
animal  products  would  include  the  peculiarities  of  organi- 
zation, the  conditions  of  life  and  growth,  the  geographical 
distribution -of  plants  and  animals,  their  origin  and  history, 
a  description  of  the  processes  of  both  nature  and  art  in 
collecting  and  preparing  them,  and  their  uses  to  the  world. 
The  lessons  to  be  derived  from  manufactured  goods  would 
lead  to  the  examination  of  still  higher  subjects,  and  would 
include  much  of  geography,  history,  mechanics,  chemistry, 
and  the  like.  It  will  be  seen  that  in  every  school  there 
can  be  collected  a  cabinet  of  this  kind  at  little  or  no 
expense,  which  will  furnish  an  inexhaustible  fund  of  in- 
formation, requiring  only  an  intelligent  teacher  to  eluci- 
date and  make  it  available. 

SLATES. — Besides  the  articles  which  have  here  been 
enumerated,  each  pupil  in  a  primary  room  should  be 
provided  with  a  slate.  This  will  afford  unfailing  amuse- 
ment, and  the  pupil,  if  properly  instructed,  can  acquire 
by  its  aid  the  first  rudiments  of  drawing.  There  is 
scarcely  an  exercise  in  the  school  in  which  it  cannot  be 
used  to  advantage,  and  it  becomes  a  source  of  great  relief 
to  a  child  from  the  wearisome  monotony  of  a  school  day. 
Slates  with  attachments  containing  drawing  and  writing 
lessons  have  lately  been  prepared,  and  are  most  excellent 
for  use  in  primary  rooms.  It  is  very  desirable  that  slates 
should  be  supplied  with  rubber  corners,  to  prevent  noise 
and  scratching  of  desks. 

14 


214  OUR    SCHOOL-HOUSES. 

PAPER  SLATES. — In  many  respects  the  paper  slates 
lately  introduced  into  our  schools  are  a  great  improve- 
ment. They  are  light,  noiseless,  and  not  easily  broken. 
They  can  be  shut  up  and  carried  inside  of  a  book,  and  in 
almost  every  particular  they  are  more  convenient  than 
the  stone  slate.  It  is  also  claimed  for  them  that  they  are 
tolerably  durable  and  comparatively  cheap. 

PLAYTHINGS. — The  primary  room  should  also  be  sup- 
plied with  a  variety  of  articles  properly  termed  "play- 
things." These  might  consist  of  dissected  maps,  objects 
for  counting,  blocks,  and  a  great  variety  of  things  of  like 
character.  Blocks  four  inches  long,  two  inches  wide,  and 
one  inch  thick,  would  perhaps  be  the  most  convenient  of 
any  for  the  building  of  houses  and  the  like.  All  these 
should  be  arranged  in  a  proper  place,  and  the  little  chil- 
dren should  be  permitted  to  use  them  when  tired  of  sit- 
ting still,  or  when  not  engaged  in  specific  school  duties. 
There  is  scarcely  anything  that  the  intelligent  teacher 
may  not  make  available  to  amuse,  interest,  and  instruct 
his  pupils. 

CARDS. — A  great  variety  of  cards  are  now  prepared 
for  the  use  of  schools,  and  many  of  them  are  valuable. 
The  alphabet,  the  elementary  sounds  of  the  language,  and 
the  elements  of  reading  may  be  profitably  taught  by  the 
use  of  cards.  The  classification  of  science  and  of  natural 
history  may  also  be  taught  in  a  similar  manner,  and  in 
nearly  every  branch  of  instruction  cards  may  be  made 
useful. 

PICTURES. — In  objective  teaching,  when  the  object  it- 
self cannot  be  obtained,  pictures  are  indispensable.  They 
convey  instruction  through  the  eye  as  well  as  the  ear. 
Geographical  and  historical  information  especially  can  be 
illustrated  and  made  instructive  by  the  use  of  well- 
selected  pictures. 


APPARATUS.  215 

The  appearance  of  natural  scenery,  such  as  mountains, 
glaciers,  rocky  ravines,  volcanoes,  cataracts,  tropical 
fruits,  and  a  great  number  of  other  things  of  like  character, 
can  be  understood  better  through  pictorial  illustrations 
than  through  elaborate  descriptions.  Pictures  should  be 
chosen  with  care,  and  such  only  taken  for  use  as  repre- 
sent something  important.  In  the  study  of  natural  history 
pictures  become  indispensable,  for  scarcely  any  idea  of 
the  peculiar  shape  and  appearance  of  animals  can  be 
gained  from  mere  description.  In  selecting  pictures  for 
schools,  avoid  the  coarse,  cheap  lithographs  of  the  shops, 
for  they  will  have  a  tendency  to  deprave  taste  rather 
than  elevate  it. 

STEREOSCOPIC  VIEWS. — A  series  of  stereoscopic  views 
would  be  of  the  greatest  value  in  teaching  many  branches 
now  imperfectly  taught  or  entirely  neglected.  A  few 
characteristic  views  of  the  natural  features  of  each  country, 
of  works  of  art,  and  of  the  costumes  of  the  people,  would 
give  more  accurate  and  vivid  geographical  knowledge 
than  can  be  obtained  from  any  verbal  description.  The 
principles  of  architecture  and  of  natural  science  can  be 
illustrated  in  the  same  manner,  and  the  driest  of  studies 
can  be  made  interesting. 

NUMERICAL  FRAME. — A  small  frame,  known  as  the 
"numerical  frame,"  consisting  of  ten  rows  of  little  balls, 
and  ten  balls  in  each  row,  strung  upon  wires,  on  which 
they  move  easily,  is  a  valuable  auxiliary  to  the  teacher 
in  giving  instruction  in  the  first  principles  of  numbers. 
The  simple  rules  of  arithmetic,  and  many  things  of  a  more 
complicated  character,  can  be  readily  illustrated  by  it, 
and  the  whole  class  can  be  instructed  at  once. 


216  OUR   SCHOOL-HOUSES. 


SPECIAL   APPARATUS. 

MAPS. — Every  school-room  should  be  supplied  with  a 
map  of  the  town,  county,  and  State  in  which  it  is  situated, 
as  well  as  with  the  maps  representing  the  grand  divis- 
ions of  the  globe.  The  first  real  knowledge  of  geography 
is  derived  from  those  objects  in  -nature  which  are  known 
to  the  pupil,  and  this  is  followed  by  making  a  map  of  this 
known  portion  of  the  earth.  From  the  special  map  the 
pupil  becomes  familiar  with  maps  in  general,  and  is  able 
to  understand  the  relative  position  of  places.  For  use  in 
the  school-room,  outline  maps,  in  which  physical  features 
are  represented  by  color,  and  political  divisions  by  faint 
outlines,  are  much  to  be  preferred  to  those  that  contain 
names  in  full.  Maps  or  charts  upon  which  is  given  a  map 
and  a  picture  of  each  of  the  natural  divisions  of  land  and 
water,  are  of  great  value  in  primary  schools. 

CHARTS. — Yariety  is  rest.  The  active-minded  pupil 
finds  relief  from  study,  not  in  blank  idleness,  but  in  seeing 
and  thinking  about  something  else,  something  different 
from  the  arithmetic  or  grammar  of  which  he  is  weary.  As 
affording  the  best  available  material  for  turning  this  ne- 
cessary diversion  of  mind  into  recreative  study,  charts 
make  the  most  appropriate  as  well  as  most  useful  decora- 
tions that  can  be  introduced  into  the  school-room.  They 
relieve  the  dead  blankness  of  naked  walls,  and  instruct 
while  they  adorn.  Silent  yet  entertaining,  they  are  the 
most  efficient  helps  that  the  teacher  can  call  around  him. 
Affording  legitimate  relief  from  study,  they  prevent  the 
pupil's  activity  from  overflowing  into  illegitimate  courses, 
as  mischief ;  thus  they  are  aids  to  discipline  as  well  as 


APPARATUS.  217 

instructors.  No  room  is  complete  as  a  school-room  with- 
out them. 

PHILOSOPHICAL  APPARATUS. — Much  costly  apparatus 
has  been  prepared  for  illustrating  principles  of  natural 
philosophy,  which  may  be  very  good  in  its  way ;  but  from 
its  costliness  is  beyond  the  reach  of  country  school- 
districts.  Almost  every  necessary  experiment  can  be 
performed  with  articles  that  the  teacher  can  procure  at 
little  or  no  expense.  For  example,  the  mechanical 
powers  can  be  illustrated  by  such  machinery  as  can 
be  obtained  at  any  farm-house.  The  lever,  the  com- 
pound lever,  the  pulley,  the  wheel  and  axle,  the  in- 
clined plane,  the  wedge  and  the  screw,  are  all  easily 
obtained.  The  common  steelyard  and  a  couple  of  pul- 
ley-blocks, a  wheel  or  two  from  an  old  clodk  and  a 
wooden  screw,  which  can  be  procured  at  any  carpenter's 
shop,  are  all  that  are  really  necessary  for  this  purpose. 
Hydrostatics  and  hydraulics  can  also  be  illustrated  by 
apparatus  equally  simple.  A  few  tin  tubes  or  bits  of  lead 
pipe,  and  vessels  of  wood  or  tin  will  do,  if  the  teacher 
has  zeal  and  a  little  genius.  We  have  not  space  for  all 
the  details  of  the  use  of  common  things  in  the  illustration 
of  principles  ;  but  will  close  by  repeating  that  all  neces- 
sary experiments  can  be  made  by  the  use  of  apparatus 
that  is  cheap  and  within  the  reach  of  all. 

MISCELLANEOUS. — The  following  articles  would  be  found 
useful  and  convenient :  a  tellurian  to  illustrate  the  revolu- 
tions of  the  earth  and  its  relation  to  the  sun  and  moon, 
the  changes  of  the  seasons,  the  phenomena  of  day  and 
night,  the  ebb  and  flow  of  the  tides  ;  a  magnet  and  small 
galvanic  battery,  to  illustrate  magnetism  and  electricity  ; 
and  an  orrery  to  show  the  relative  size  of  each  of  the 
planets  in  the  solar  system,  the  periods  of  their  revolution, 
and  their  respective  distances  from  the  sun.  A  few  lenses 


218 


OUR   SCHOOL-HOUSES. 


and  mirrors,  plane,  concave,  and  convex,  and  a  prism, 
which  can  be  procured  at  little  cost,  are  desirable  to  as- 
sist in  simplifying  the  abstruse  subject  of  optics. 

The  school  should  always  be  supplied  with  fixtures  to 
make  the  apparatus  available,  and  to  preserve  it  from 
injury.  Hooks  should  be  placed  upon  the  walls,  upon 
which  maps  and  charts  may  be  suspended,  and  pointers 
should  be  provided  for  recitations  upon  maps  and  black- 
boards. A  closet  should  be  provided  for  preserving  the 
apparatus  when  not  in  use. 


Fig.  88. 


CHAPTER  X. 


OUT-BUILDINGS. 

THE  general  form  and  location  of  all  the  out-buildings 
necessary  to  a  school  have  already  been  described,  and 
nothing  more  need  be  added 
in  regard  to  the  porch,  wood- 
house,  etc.  Privies  have 
also  been  briefly  noticed, 
but,  in  consequence  of  a  gen- 
eral apathy  upon  this  sub- 
ject, we  devote  this  entire 
chapter  to  the  further  con- 
sideration of  their  character, 
location,  and  arrangement.  Fig.  so. 

We  are  fully  persuaded  that,  in  consequence  of  a  culpable 
neglect  in  this  direction,  all  efforts  for  the  improvement 
of  the  social  and  moral  condition  of  our  schools  are,  in  a 
great  measure,  neutralized,  and  that  from  the  same  source 
arises  much  of  the  disinclination  that  parents  have  to 
sending  their  children  to  the  public  schools. 

In  some  districts,  even  at  the  present  day,  there  is  no 
privy!  The  following  extract  from  the  annual'report  of 
Hon.  John  0.  Spencer,  Superintendent  of  the  Common 
Schools  of  New  York,  to  the  Legislature,  in  1840,  very 
forcibly  shows  the  folly,  wickedness,  and  brutality  of  this 
practice  : 

"A  man  who  should  build  a  good  dwelling-house,  but 
provide  no  place  for  retirement  when  performing  the 
most  private  offices  of  nature,  would  be  thought  to  give 


220  OUR   SCHOOL-HOUSES. 

the  clearest  evidence  of  a  coarse  and  brutal  mind.  Yet 
respectable  parents  allow  their  children  to  go  to  a  school 
where  this  is  the  case,  and  where  the  evil  is  greatly 
aggravated  by  the  fact  that  numbers  of  both  sexes  are 
collected,  and  that,  too,  at  an  age  of  extreme  levity,  and 
when  the  youthful  mind  is  prone  to  the  indulgence  of  a 
•prurient  imagination.  Says  one  of  the  school  visitors, 
'  In  most  cases  in  this  town  the  scholars,  male  and  female, 
are  turned  promiscuously  and  simultaneously  into  the 
public  highway,  without  the  shelter  of  so  much  as  a  stump 
for  a  covert  to  the  calls  of  nature.  The  baneful  effects  of 
this  barbarous  custom  on  the  young  and  pliant  sensibili- 
ties are  truly  lamentable.' ' 

The  Superintendent  of  the  Common  Schools  of  Con- 
necticut, in  1850,  holds  the  following  language  :  "  An 
appalling  chapter  might  be  written  on  the  evils,  the 
almost  inevitable  results  of  neglecting  to  provide  these 
indispensable  appendages  to  school-houses  in  our  State. 
Who  can  duly  estimate  the  final  consequences  of  the  first 
shock  given  to  female  delicacy  from  the  necessary  expos- 
ure to  which  the  girls  in  the  public  schools  are  inevitably 
subjected  ;  and  what  must  be  the  legitimate  results  of 
these  frequent  exposures  during  the  school-going  years 
of  youth  ?  What  quenchless  fires  of  passion  have  been 
kindled  within  the  bosoms  of  the  young  of  both  sexes  by 
these  exposures ;  fires  that  have  raged  to  the  consuming 
of  personal  happiness,  to  the  prevention  of  scholastic 
improvement,  and  to  the  destruction  of  personal  charac- 
ter ?  Again,  what  disgust  has  been  created  in  both  sexes 
by  not  having  the  appropriate  retirements  which  nature 
imperiously  demands?  And,  finally,  may  not  the  disin- 
clination, the  aversion  of  large  numbers  of  families,  of 
mothers  especially,  to  sending  their  daughters  to  the 
public  schools,  have  been  created  by  the  sufferings  they 


OUT-BUILDINGS.  221 

themselves  have  endured  from  the  above  cause  ;  and  an 
unwillingness  to  subject  the  delicacy  of  their  daughters 
to  the  obnoxious  trial  ?" 

The  evils  here  so  vividty  and  truthfully  pointed  out  are 
not  confined  to  the  districts  where  no  privies  are  built, 
but  they  apply  in  an  almost  equal  degree  to  country  dis- 
tricts where  there  is  only  one  small,  mere  apology  for  a 
privy.  In  a  majority  of  cases,  a  slight  building,  made 
of  rough  boards,  is  erected,  of  such  a  character  that  it 
answers  no  purpose  of  privacy,  and  is  only  useful  as  a 
very  poor  and  inadequate  screen.  It  is  usually  situated 
directly  upon  the  highway,  in  close  proximity  to  the 
school-house,  and  is  completely  exposed  to  public  ob- 
servation. Only  one  building  is  furnished  for  the  accom- 
modation of  the  two  sexes,  so  that  there  can  be  no  surety 
that  the  delicacy  of  young  girls  will  not  be  outraged  by 
the  contact  of  grossness  and  brutality.  Again,  it  is  usu- 
ally built  with  a  very  shallow  vault,  with  no  conveniences 
and  no  guards  against  abuses,  and  it  soon  becomes  the  most 
offensive  and  disgusting  object  in  itself  that  it  is  possible 
to  conceive,  and  a  positive  nuisance  to  the  school  and 
neighborhood.  We  believe  that  the  picture  here  given  of 
the  condition  of  our  country  districts,  and  the  evils  result- 
ing from  that  condition,  are  not  overdrawn,  and  that  they 
are  of  such  a  character  as  to  demand  immediate  attention. 

In  arranging  privies  for  a  school,  the  following  princi- 
ples should  always  be  observed.  They  should  be  com- 
modious, and  constructed  so  as  to  avoid  offensive  odors. 
They  should  be  placed  at  a  sufficient  distance,  so  that 
they  could  never  become  offensive  to  the  school.  They 
should  be  screened  from  public  observation.  It  will  be 
seen  at  once  that  a  school-lot  is  necessary  to  afford  a 
decent  location  for  a  privy.  As  long  as  school-buildings 
are  erected  in  the  street,  or  upon  a. lot  large  enough  to 


222 


OUR   SCHOOL-HOUSES. 


contain  only  the  school-house,  it  will  be  impossible  to  bring 
about  reform.  There  can  be  no  place  protected  from  ob- 
servation, or  where  the  building  itself  will  not  constantly 
be  liable  to  abuses.  In  a  lot,  containing  an  acre,  the 
school-house  should  be  placed  in  its  centre,  and  a  high, 
tight  board  fence  should  extend  from  the  centre  of  the 
rear  of  the  building  to  the  farther  edge  of  the  lot,  divid- 
ing the  rear  yard  into  two  parts.  The  privies  should 
be  situated  near  the  centre  of  the  back  part  of  the  re- 


Fig.  90. 

spective  yards,  carefully  guarded  by  screens  of  wood,  or  by 
living  hedge.  They  should  be  supplied  with  large,  well- 
stoned  vaults,  at  least  six  feet  deep.  If  possible,  a  drain 
should  lead  from  the  vault  to  a  distance,  and  a  stream 
of  running  water  should  be  permitted  to  flow  through  it. 
The  buildings  themselves  should  be  well  plastered  and 
painted,  and  finished  in  the  same  general  style  of  architec- 
ture as  the  school-house.  The  seats  should  be  provided 
with  lids  hung  with  butts,  and  all  the  walls  should  be  left 
hollow,  opening  into  a  ventilating  chimney  above  to  carry 
off  the  gases.  The  plaster  should  be  left  very  rough,  and  a 


OUT-BUILDINGS. 


223 


heavy  coat  of  coarse  sand  should  be  mixed  with  the  paint 
to  render  scribbling  and  obscene  figures  impossible. 

Great  care  should  be  taken  to  so  construct  the  seats 
that  defilement  becomes  almost  impossible.  In  this  mat- 
ter, however,  reference  need  only  be  made  to  that  pro- 
vided for  boys,  because  girls'  privies  are  seldom  abused 
in  this  way.  Besides  the  lids  hung  with  butts,  which 
should  be  placed  in  all  privies,  in  that  of  the  boys  a 
strong  brace  of  plank  should  be  firmly  affixed  to  the 
frame  of  the  building,  so  that  the  covers  cannot  be  opened 
beyond  an  angle  of  sixty  degrees,  thus  rendering  it  im- 
possible to  stand  upon  the  seat.  Fig.  91 
represents  a  privy  suitable  for  the  girls' 
yard.  It  consists  of  one  apartment,  fur- 
nished with  the  requisite  number  of  seats. 
The  size  of  the  building  must  depend 
upon  the  size  of  the  school.  This  build- 
ing should  be  neatly  finished  and  painted. 
v  The  privy  for  the  boys  is  more  troublesome.  The 
difficulty  of  keeping  them  clean  is  well  known  to  every 
teacher.  We  apprehend  that  this  trouble  arises  princi- 
pally from  the  fact  that  urinals  are  not  provided,  and 
consequently  the  seats  are  often  wet,  and  thus  rendered 
unfit  to  sit  upon.  Fig.  92 
represents  a  privy  for  boys, 
arranged  to  guard  against 
this  evil.  It  is  fourteen 
feet  by  ten  fe.et,  and  divided 
into  two  apartments  by  a 
close  partition.  The  part  A 
is  supplied  with  seats  sepa- 
rated by  partitions ;  and  the  part  B  with  a  trough,  divided 
into  stalls  by  partitions,  in  a  manner  similar  to  A.  This 
arrangement  is  such  that  there  cannot  be  the  slightest 


Fig.  91. 


Fig.  92'. 


224  OUR   SCHOOL-HOUSES. 

excuse  for  any  abuse  of  any  part  of  the  building,  and 
teachers  would  have  very  little  difficulty  in  keeping  it 
scrupulously  neat,  and  free  from  every  kind  of  defilement 
and  injury. 

Locks  should  be  placed  upon  all  the  doors  of  privies, 
so  that  they  cannot  be  entered  except  during  hours  when 
the  teacher  can  have  them  under  his  own  personal  super- 
vision. When  privies  are  thus  perfectly  constructed,  the 
teacher  should  always  be  held  responsible  for  keeping 
them  in  good  order.  He  can  do  this  very  easily  by  per- 
sonally inspecting  the  buildings  every  day,  and  promptly 
noticing  the  very  first  violation  of  the  rules  of  decency. 
Thus  the  teacher  may  accomplish  a  great  good,  by  teach- 
ing habits  of  decency  and  modesty,  and  by  repressing  all 
exhibitions  of  grossness.  He  may  also  inculcate  impor- 
tant hygienic  laws  in  this  connection,  which  will  be  of  the 
greatest  importance  to  the  pupil  through  life.  It  is  the 
custom  of  many  excellent  teachers,  principals  of  some  of 
our  most  noted  union  schools,  to  frequently  look  into  the 
privy  while  the  boys  are  in  it,  thus  rendering  the  abuse 
very  difficult,  and  its  detection  almost  certain.  In  this 
way  all  the  out-buildings  of  the  school  are  kept  as  fastidi- 
ously neat  as  those  connected  with  our  best  dwellings. 
Let  all  interested  in  schools  contrast  such  a  state  of  things 
with  that  usually  found  in  country  districts,  and  decide 
whether  the  advantages  gained  would  not  outweigh  the 
expense  incurred. 


CHAPTER  XL 


Fig.  98. 


ARRANGING    AND    ORNAMENTING   GROUNDS. 

AMPLE  school-grounds  are  needed  for  a  great  variety 
of  purposes  ;  and  when  the  philosophy  of  instruction  shall 
be  fully  understood,  large 
yards  will  be  considered 
indispensable  as  affording 
opportunities  for  physical 
exercise,  and  for  displaying 
the  beauties  of  nature.  Phy- 
sical education  is  now  too 
often  neglected,  and,  indeed, 
the  circumstances  and  sur- 
roundings of  the  majority 
of  our  schools  are  such  that 
a  regular  course  of  physical  discipline  is  impossible.  The 
necessity  and  importance  of  exercise  are  forcibly  ex- 
pressed in  the  following  extract  from  the  Famfay  Gym- 
nasium,  by  Dr.  Trail : 

"It  is  as  natural  for  a  child  to  exercise  as  to  breathe. 
When  unrestrained,  nearly  all  children  are  distinguished 
for  restless  activity.  Nature  bids  them  exercise,  and  they 
obey  the  mandate,  often  in  spite  of  ignorant  parents, 
nurses,  and  teachers,  who  scold  and  whip  them  for  rest- 
lessness. Teachers  are  often  more  disposed  to  consult 
their  own  convenience  than  to  study  the  laws  of  nature 
as  applicable  to  their  young  charge  ;  and,  by  dint  of 
praising  quietness  and  blaming  activity,  the  poor  child's 

15 


226  OUR  SCHOOL-HOUSES. 

nature  is  smothered  ;  and  pale  cheeks,  diminutive  muscu- 
lar development,  weakness,  dyspepsia,  consumption,  and 
death  are  the  fruits  of  the  oft-repeated  command,  '  Keep 
quiet.' 

"  Exercise  is  as  essential  to  development  as  air  is  to  life. 
No  person  can  acquire  a  large,  compact,  muscular  organi- 
zation without  it. 

"  '  Bat  you  would  not  have  girls  run  and  romp  over  hill 
and  dale,  and  laugh  boisterously,  like  boys  ?'  Let  us  ex- 
amine the  subject,  and  see  what  Nature,  the  great  teacher, 
will  say  concerning  it.  Do  young  female  animals  frisk, 
jump,  and  play  like  males  ?  and  do  little  girls  instinct- 
ively laugh  loudly,  and  run  and  play  like  boys  ?  If  so, 
we  may  safely  infer  that  Nature  has  established  the  same 
general  law  of  exercise — not  for  animals  merely,  but  for 
both  sexes  of  the  human  race. 

"  Rousseau  observes  :  '  If  you  wish  to  develop  the  mind 
of  a  pupil,  develop  the  power  which  mind  has  to  govern— 
exercise  his  body,  make  him  healthy  and  strong,  that  you 
may  make  him  prudent  and  reasonable.7 

11  Systematic  gymnastic  exercises,  which  give  energy 
and  precision  to  muscular  movements,  are  not  only  useful 
in  the  development  of  bodily  vigor,  but  are  also  efficient 
auxilia^es  in  mental  education  by  inducing  habits  of 
order,  exactness,  and  directness  in  the  mental  opera- 
tions." 

To  render  this  systematic  exercise  possible,  there  must 
be  considerable  space  ;  and  it  will  be  seen  that  this  space 
is  not  designed  for  mere  amusements,  but  in  reality  be- 
comes one  of  the  most  important  educational  auxiliaries. 
The  ground  devoted  to  play  and  exercise  should  be  free 
from  obstructions,  and  hence  trees,  flower-beds,  etc.,  would 
be  out  of  place  in  that  portion  of  the  school-yard.  Differ- 
ent kinds  of  gymnastic  apparatus  should  be  provided  for 


ARRANGING  AND  ORNAMENTING  GROUNDS.     227 

these  yards,  so  as  to  give  variety  to  exercise,  and  to  de- 
velop every  muscle  of  the  body.  Teachers  should  under- 
stand the  science  and  art  of  physical  development,  so  as 
to  be  able  to  encourage  the  adoption  of  such  plays  as  will 
be  most  likely  to  secure  the  desired  result. 

Having  made  the  best  possible  disposition  of  the  school- 
buildings,  and  secured  the  desired  open  spaces  for  play- 
grounds, the  subject  next  to  consider  is  that  of  '  'orna- 
ment.'7 While  answering  strictly  utilitarian  purposes, 
the  whole  grounds  may  be  so  arranged  as  to  become 
educational  influences  ;  first,  by  being  attractive  to  the 
pupils  ;  second,  by  affording  them  constant  pleasure  dur- 
ing their  school-days  ;  and  third,  by  cultivating  in  them 
a  taste  for  the  beautiful  in  nature.  For  the  purposes  of 
ornament,  trees  are  at  once  the  most 'beautiful  and  the 
most  enduring.  They  can  be  procured  at  a  very  trifling 
cost,,  wherever  school-houses  are  built,  and,  unlike  most 
of  things  connected  with  schools,  they  increase  in  value  and 
beauty  each  successive  year,  nature  assuming  the  cost, 
and  lavishing  upon  them  her  rarest  beauties  of  color  and 
form.  A.  J.  Downing,  the  great  lover  of  nature,  in  his 
work  upon  "Landscape  Gardening/7  thus  speaks  of  trees, 
and  of  their  influence  upon  the  mind  : 

11 A  tree,  undoubtedly,  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful 
objects  in  nature.  Airy  and  delicate  in  its  youth,  luxuri- 
ant and  majestic  in  its  prime,  venerable  and  picturesque 
in  its  old  age,  it  constitutes  in  its  various  forms,  sizes,  and 
developments,  the  greatest  charm  and  beauty  of  the  earth 
in  all  countries.  The  most  varied  outline  of  surface,  the 
finest  combination  of  picturesque  materials,  the  stateliest 
country  house  would  be  comparatively  tame  and  spiritless 
without  the  inimitable  accompaniment  of  foliage.  Let 
those  who  have  passed  their  whole  lives  in  a  richly- wooded 
country — whose  daily  visions  are  of  deep,  leafy  glens, 


228  OUR   SCHOOL-HOUSES. 

forest-clad  hills,  and  plains  luxuriantly  shaded — transport 
themselves  for  a  moment  to  the  desert,  where  but  a  few 
stunted  bushes  raise  their  heads  above  the  earth  ;  or  to 
those  wild  steppes  where  the  eye  wanders  in  vain  for 
some  *  leafy  garniture' — where  the  sun  strikes  down  with, 
parching  heat,  or  the  wind  sweeps  over  with  unbroken 
fury,  and  they  may,  perhaps,  estimate,  by  contrast,  their 
beauty  and  value. 

"  Wood,  in  its  many  shapes,  is  then  one  of  the  greatest 
sources  of  interest  and  character  in  landscapes.  Variety, 
which  we  need  scarcely  allude  to  as  a  fertile  source  of 
beauty,  is  created  in  a  wonderful  degree  by  a  natural 
arrangement  of  trees.  To  a  pile  of  buildings,  or  even  of 
ruins,  to  a  group  of  rocks  or  animals,  they  communicate 
new  life  and  spirit,  by  their  irregular  outlines,  which  by 
partially  concealing  some  portions,  and  throwing  others 
into  stronger  light,  contribute  greatly  to  produce  intricacy 
and  variety,  and  confer  an  expression  which,  without  these 
latter  qualities,  might,  in  a  great  measure,  be  wanting. 
By  shutting  out  some  parts  and  inclosing  others,  they 
divide  the  extent  embraced  by  the  eye  into  a  hundred 
different  landscapes,  instead  of  one  tame  scene  bounded 
by  .the  horizon. 

"  The  different  seasons  of  the  year,  too,  are  inseparably 
connected  in  our  minds  with  the  effects  produced  by  them 
on  woodland  scenery.  Spring  is  joyous  and  enlivening 
to  us,  as  nature  then  puts  on  her  fresh  livery  of  green, 
and  the  trees  bud  and  blossom  with  a  renewed  beauty 
that  speaks  with  a  mute  and  gentle  eloquence  to  the 
heart.  In  summer  they  offer  us  a  grateful  shelter  under 
their  umbrageous  arms  and  leafy  branches,  and  whisper 
unwritten  music  to  the  passing  breeze.  In  autumn  we 
feel  a  melancholy  thoughtfulness  as 

'  We  stand  among  the  falling  leaves/ 


ARRANGING   AND    ORNAMENTING    GROUNDS.  229 

and  gaze  upon  their  dying  glories.  And  in  winter  we  see 
in  them  the  silent  rest  of  nature,  and  behold  in  their  leaf- 
less sprays  and  seemingly  dead  limbs  an  annual  type  of 
that  deeper  mystery — the  deathless  sleep  of  all  being. 

"By  the  judicious  employment  of  trees,  we  may  effect 
the  greatest  alterations  and  improvements  within  the 
scope  of  landscape  gardening.  Buildings  which  are  tame, 
insipid,  or  even  mean  in  appearance,  may  be  made  inter- 
esting, and  even  picturesque,  by  a  proper  disposition  of 
trees.  Edifices,  or  parts  of  them,  that  are  unsightly,  or 
which  it  is  desirable  partly  or  wholly  to  conceal,  can 
readily  be  hidden  or  improved  by  wood  ;  and  walks  and 
roads,  which  otherwise  would  be  but  simple  ways  of 
approach  from  one  point  to  another,  are,  by  an  elegant 
arrangement  of  trees  on  their  margin,  or  adjacent  to  them, 
made  the  most  interesting  and  pleasing  portions  of  the 
residence." 

There  is  an  opportunity  for  the  exercise  of  a  great 
diversity  of  tastes,  both  in  selecting  and  in  arranging 
trees  for  ornamenting  school-grounds.  In  selecting,  the 
following  principles  should  be  taken  as  guides  :  First, 
such  trees  should  be  chosen  as  will  harmonize  with  the 
general  features  of  the  landscape.  For  example  :  in  a 
hilly  or  very  broken  region  the  tall,  spiry-topped  trees, 
like  the  pine,  fir,  spruce,  and  hemlock,  would  be  in  keep- 
ing with  the  natural  scenery,  but  upon  a  wide,  extended 
plain,  they  would  appear  comparatively  mean  and  incon- 
gruous. The  round-topped  and  symmetrical  trees,  like 
the  oak,  maple,  and  beech,  are  much  better  adapted  to 
the  quiet  scenery  of  a  level  region  than  to  the  irregular 
outlines  of  a  rough,  mountainous  surface.  Second,  the 
different  varieties  of  trees  selected  should  harmonize  with 
each  other.  Although  a  variety  is  always  desirable,  yet 
the  different  kinds  chosen  for  any  given  spot  or  group 


230 


OUR   SCHOOL-HOUSES. 


should  be  somewhat  similar  in  shape,  so  as  not  to  present 
too  great  a  contrast.  For  example,  a  group  consisting  of 
a  maple,  beech,  and  oak  would  be  harmonious,  while  one 
consisting  of  a  Lombardy  poplar,  weeping-willow,  and  fir 
would  be  incongruous. 

For  different  purposes,  also,  different  trees  are  to  be 
chosen.     Some  are  selected  to  border  an  avenue  or  path, 

and  some  for  mere  shade  ;  some 
are  to  be  placed  singly,  and 
some  disposed  in  groups  ;  and 
different  varieties  of  trees  are 
particularly  adapted'  to  each 
case.  For  single  trees,  where 
there  is  to  be  left  sufficient  space 
for  their  entire  expansion,  in  a 
level  or  moderately  hilly  region, 
there  is  no  tree  in  grace  or 
beauty  can  surpass  the  drooping 
elm.  The  maple  is  a  noble  tree, 
and  is  admirably  adapted  for 
either  a  situation  as  a  single  tree, 
or  as  a  member  of  a  group.  The  oak  and  chestnut  are 
among  the  largest  and  noblest  of  all  our  trees,  and  either 
may  be  taken  for  the  central  object  of  a  group.  The 
weeping-willow  appears  best  as  a  single  tree,  and  in  a 
level  tract  of  country.  The  spruce,  hemlock,  ash,  and 
beech,  from  our  common  forests,  all  make  beautiful  shade 
trees.  Among  other  shade  trees  that  can  be  easily  pro- 
cured in  some  sections  of  the  country  are  the  horse- 
chestnut,  locust,  and  hickory,  the  magnolia  and  cotton- 
wood  of  the  Southern  States,  and  the  buckeye  and  black 
walnut  of  the  West.  The  soft  maple  is  highly  valued  as 
an  ornamental  tree,  on  account  of  its  red  blossoms  of  early 
spring,  its  dense  green  foliage  in  summer,  and  its  beautiful 


Fig.  94. 


ARRANGING  AND  ORNAMENTING  GROUNDS.     231 

dress  of  deep  crimson  after  the  first  frost  of  autumn.  To 
conclude,  there  is  scarcely  a  tree  of  our  forests  that  would 
not  become  a  beautiful  ornament,  if  transplanted  and 
nurtured  with  proper  care. 

The  arrangement  of  trees  should  be  the  subject  of 
careful  study.  They  are  usually  set  out  in  straight  rows, 
without  any  regard  to  beauty  of  grouping,  and  effecting 
no  result  except  that  of  furnishing  shade.  The  stiff  for- 
mality of  their  position  goes  far  to  destroy  the  effect  of 
their  beautiful  outlines,  and  thus  the  most  important 
objects  of  their  culture  are  lost.  When  we  bring  into 
immediate  contrast  the  stateliness  and  formality  of  an 
estate  .  planted  with  trees  in  straight  rows,  with  a 
natural  landscape,  with  trees  and  groves  promiscu- 
ously scattered  over  it,  we  can  at  once  appreciate  the 
immeasurably  superior  beauty  of  the  latter  scene  over  the 
former. 

Trees  should  be  planted  singly  or  in  groups.  Single 
trees  should  be  such  as  have  a  graceful  and  beautiful  out- 
line, and  convey  to  the  mind  the  feeling  of  completeness, 
as  the  drooping  elm,  weeping-willow,  and  horse-chestnut. 
Groups  may  consist  of  several  kinds  of  trees,  that  are 
harmonious  in  character,  planted  so  closely  together  that 
at  a  little  distance  they  have  the  appearance  of  a  single 
object.  They  should  always  be  composed  of  one  principal 
tree,  larger  and  taller  than  the  rest,  with  the  others 
grouped  around  it  as  subordinates. 

These  single  trees  and  groups  should  be  so  disposed 
about  the  school  premises  as  not  to  interfere  with  the 
play-grounds,  and  at  the  same  time  to  produce  as  great  a 
variety  as  possible  in  the  appearance  of  the  landscape.  If 
the  situation  is  a  fine  one,  openings  should  be  left  to  afford 
views  of  distant  objects,  such  as  a  lake,  river,  or  moun- 
tain, all  of  which  objects  will  appear  much  more  beautiful 


232  OUR   SCHOOL-HOUSES. 

seen  through  a  vista,  bounded  by  the  shifting  foliage  and 
waving  branches  of  the  trees. 

Shrubs  that  are  commonly  used  for  hedges  should  also 
be  thickly  planted  in  gracefully  curved  lines,  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  completely  screen  the  approach  to  the  out- 
buildings, and  to  cover  up  such  portions  of  the  buildings 
as  should  not  be  exposed  to  public  gaze.  Flowers  might 
also  be  cultivated  to  a  limited  extent,  but,  as  a  general 
thing,  they  would  not  receive  sufficient  attention  in  our 
country  districts  to  insure  their  successful  culture. 

School-grounds  arranged  in  this  manner  would  become 
great  powers  of  refinement  and  important  influences  for 
good.  When  trees  are  once  planted,  the  winds,  the  sun, 
and  the  rains  carefully  and  assiduously  nurture  them, 
supplying  their  every  want,  and  converting  their  puny 
stalks  into  giant  forms,  until 

"  They  stand  massy,  and  tall,  and  dark, 
Fit  shrine  for  humble  worshipper  to  hold 
Communion  with  his  Maker." 

The  first  school  impressions  of  childhood  would  be 
associated  with  their  graceful  outlines,  the  wnving  of  their 
branches,  and  the  struggling  of  light  down  through  green 
leaves.  Lessons  of  wisdom  and  beauty,  which  would 
endure  forever,  could  be  continually  gathered  from  their 
trunks,  their  leaves,  and  their  blossoms.  The  men  that 
planted  them  would  perform  a  work  directly  aiding  in  the 
elevation  of  humanity,  and  long  after  their  forms  have 
mouldered  in  the  dust,  whole  generations  of  children  would 
"  rise  up  and  call  them  blessed." 


CHAPTER    XII. 

ARCHITECTURE    AN   EDUCATIONAL    INFLUENCE. 

ORDINARY  use  is  not  the  only  value  of  buildings.  They 
may  be  so  constructed  as  to  appeal  to  the  higher  senti- 
ments, and  render  important  aid  in  develop-  f 
ing  the  better  and  finer  feelings  of  our 
nature.  This  is  the  proper  province  of 
architecture,  and  the  work  of  the  architect 
is  to  so  fashion  our  buildings  and  arrange 
their  'details,  that  while  they  answer  the 
purposes  of  their  erection,  they  may,  at  the 
same  time,  satisfy  that  love  of  the  beautiful, 
the  symmetrical,  and  the  harmonious. 

In  this  country  too  little  attention  has 
yet  been  given  to  those  things  which  elevate 
and  refine.  The  entire  energies  of  our  peo- 
ple were  early  and  exclusively  devoted  to 
subduing  the  wilderness  and  providing  the  necessaries  of 
life.  They  could  bestow  no  time  on  pursuits  which  did 
not  directly  conduce  to  the  simplest  ends  of  human  exist- 
ence. Consequently,  their  descendants  are  a  prompt, 
resolute,  and  vigorous  race.  But  the  arts  of  refinement 
which  were,  at  first,  through  absolute  necessity,  neglected, 
are  now  habitually  despised  or  disregarded.  No  people 
on  earth  who  have  attained  to  an  equal  degree  of  intel- 
lectual and  moral  culture,  evince  so  little  taste  and  refine- 
ment. 


234  OUR   SCHOOL-HOUSES. 

We  begin,  however,  to  discern  the  dawning  of  a  better 
day.  We  begin  to  feel  that  there  are  wants  in  our  nature 
that  are  not  to  be  satisfied  by  mere  material  appliances. 
We  begin  to  appreciate  the  beautiful,  and  its  influence  in 
developing  our  higher  powers.  Evidences  of  this  change 
of  public  sentiment  may  be  found  in  the  attention  now 
paid  to  art,  in  the  patronage  bestowed  upon  artists,  and 
in  the  improvement  of  the  architecture  of  public  buildings 
and  private  residences  in  many  parts  of  the  country.  The 
results  of  this  improved  sentiment  react  upon  the  com- 
munity, softening  the  sharp  features  of  our  national  char- 
acter, multiplying  those  little  amenities  which  give  grace, 
beauty,  and  dignity  to  our  life,  and  even  aiding  to  develop 
the  Christian  virtues  of  faith  and  charity. 

Numerous  and  potent  are  the  influences  furnished  by 
literature  for  the  cultivation  of  the  taste  ;  but  impressions 
more  vivid  and  lasting  may  be  made  by  the  presentation 
to  the  senses  of  sublime  or  beautiful  objects,  such  as 
natural  scenery,  landscape  improved  by  art,  and  the  best 
productions  of  sculpture,  painting,  and  architecture. 

Of  the  various  influences  which  tend  to  mature  and 
refine  the  taste,  we  have  occasion,  in  this  work,  to  refer 
only  to  those  of  architecture.  The  importance  and  neces- 
sity of  this  art  to  the  great  work  of  education 
we  shall  endeavor  to  show. 

Architecture,  primarily,  deals  only  with 
forms  which  address  the  eye.  It  embodies 
ideas  of  proportion,  symmetry,  variety,  har- 
mony, and  unity. 

By  PROPORTION  is  meant  that  due  relation 
which  should  exist  between  the  different  dimen- 
gions  of  a  building,  in  order  to  convey  the  idea 
of  correctness.  We  frequently  see  buildings  in  which 
this  principle  is  violated,  and  are  pained  at  the  want  of 


ARCHITECTURE    AN    EDUCATIONAL   INFLUENCE.          235 

taste  so  prominently  displayed.  Buildings  too  long  for 
their  height,  too  high  for  their  length,  or  too  wide  for 
either,  appear  to  be  the  "  rule,"  rather  than  the  "  excep- 
tion ;'7  yet  a  well-proportioned  structure  is  immediately 
and  almost  universally  recognized  as  such,  and  cannot 
fail  to  afford  general  satisfaction  and  delight. 

SYMMETRY  requires  a  proper  balance  of  parts.  The 
regular  placing  of  doors  and  windows,  and  the  disposal  of 
all  the  details,  so-  that  none  shall  seem  out  of  place,  are  in 
obedience  to  this  principle. 

VARIETY  is  the  opposite  of  monotony,  and  would  induce 
us  to  relieve  blank  walls  in  some  manner,  and  to  break  up 
long  horizontal  lines,  so  as  to  produce  an  agreeable  effect, 
like  that  made  by  a  diversified  landscape,  or  a  number  of 
views  in  nature,  each  differing  from  the  other.  This  would 
lead  us  also  to  obviate  sameness  in  a  range  of  buildings, 
and,  within  certain  limits,  to  give  diversity  to  details.  It 
would  forbid  the  erection  of  those  vast  square  or  oblong 
piles  of  brick  and  mortar,  which  now  so  frequently  bur- 
den, without  adorning,  the  face  of  the  earth. 

HARMONY  may  be  defined  as  the  limit  of  variety.  It  is 
that  peculiar  relation  which  all  the  parts  should  have  to 
each  other,  producing  in  the  mind  a  sense  of  completeness 
and  adaptation.  It  allows  no  incongruities,  and  indulges 
in  no  conceits.  Harmony  in  architecture,  as  in  music,  so 
arranges  and  blends  the  different  parts,  that  each  seems  an 
indispensable  element  of  a  perfect  whole. 

UNITY  refers  to  the  evident  design  which  pervades  the 
structure  ;  the  one  idea,  which  has  not  only  harmonized 
the  parts  with  each  other,  but  adapted  the  whole  to  its 
uses.  In  accordance  with  this  principle,  while  all  the 
other  laws  of  taste  in  architecture  should  be  observed, 
they  should  be  subordinated  to  the  object  of  the  con- 
struction. 


236  OUR   SCHOOL-HOUSES. 

As  the  mind  becomes  familiar  with  beautiful  objects, 
and  with  the  laws  of  beauty,  its  sensibility  to  moral  excel- 
lence is  cultivated,  the  manners  are  conformed  to 
the  principles  of  harmony,  and  the  effects  pro- 
duced upon  the  whole  man  are  of  the  most  bene- 
ficial and  lasting  character.  The  influence  ascribed 
by  Plato,  in  his  Republic,  to  a  musical  education, 
Fig.  97.  may -be  predicated  with  equal  truth  of  a  judicious 
culture  in  this  department  of  art.  It  is  essential,  he  says, 
"because  it  makes  rhythm  and  harmony  to  settle  deeply 
in  the  inner  soul,  and  take  strong  hold  of  it,  carrying 
with  them  comeliness,  and  making  a  man  comely-minded. 
Also,  because  one  so  nurtured  will  have  the  quickest  per- 
ception of  all  faults  and  imperfections  in  art  or  nature, 
and,  regarding  them  with  just  aversion,  will  admire  and 
love  the  beautiful.  This  he  will  receive  with  joy  into  his 
soul,  will  feed  on  it,  and  assimilate  his  own  nature  to  its 
beauty,  will  learn  to  censure  and  hate  deformity,  even  in 
early  youth,  while  yet  incapable  of  understanding  the  reason 
jiohy,  and  when  the  reason  comes,  will  embrace  it  gladly, 
as  a  familiar  thing." 

In  those  countries  where  architecture  has  reached  its 
highest  development,  taste  and  refinement  exert  their 
greatest  influence.  As  an  instance  of  the  refining  effect  of 
beautiful  objects,  the  fact  might  be  mentioned  that,  in 
many  of  the  old  countries,  sculptured  decorations  in 
architecture  have  remained  for  ages  uninjured,  save  by 
the  elements  ;  and  that  even  after  the  edifices  they  once 
adorned  have  fallen  into  ruin,  veneration  seems  to  have 
shielded  these  trophies  of  art  from  profanation.  In  our 
more  logical  and  practical  communities,  the  destructive 
passion  would  be  restrained  by  no  such  sentiment ;  and 
not  twenty-four  hours  would  elapse  after  an  old  building 
of  celebrity  had  been  abandoned,  before  fragments  would 


ARCHITECTURE    AN    EDUCATIONAL    INFLUENCE.          237 

be  chipped  off  for  mementoes,  or  pounded  to  pieces,  to 
satisfy  the  analytical  spirit  of  some  ruthless  traveller. 
Beauty  of  form,  however,  seems,  in  some  measure,  to 
afford  protection.  An  old  or  mean-looking  building, 
deserted  or  unoccupied,  is  a  target  for  boys,  and  even  for 
children  of  a  larger  growth  ;  and  every  one  feels  an 
instinctive  desire  to  rid  the  earth  of  such  deformity.  But 
a  complete  and  beautiful  structure  generally  enjoys  a 
longer,  if  not  an  entire,  exemption  from  injury.  When 
taste  is  really  and  universally  cultivated,  there  will  be  no 
danger  of  the  wanton  desecration  of  beautiful  objects. 

In  the  erection  of  every  school-house  particular  care 
should  be  taken  to  observe  the  rules  of  taste  as  regards 
form.  In  our  country  districts,  where  a  small 
and  plain  building  only  is  demanded,  we  need  to 
consider  proportion  and  symmetry  alone  ;  the 
other  principles  of  architecture  applying  chiefly 
to  larger  and  more  pretending  structures.  If 
this  is  done,  if  our  school-houses  all  conform  to  these 
two  fundamental  laws,  they  cannot  fail  to  become  strong 
educational  influences.  The  advantages  of  obeying  the 
principles  of  architecture  in  the  construction  of  school- 
houses  may  be  summed  up  in  a  few  words  : 

1.  If  the  building  is  an  object  of  beauty,  the  very  sight 
of  it  inspires  emotions  of  pleasure. 

2.  It  adorns  and  beautifies  the  landscape  of  which  it 
forms  a  part. 

3.  It  becomes  an  attractive  place  to  children,  and  does 
not  repel  them  by  its  deformity. 

4.  It  practically  teaches  ideas  of  proportion  and  sym- 
metry, and  new  and  exalted  conceptions  of  beauty  of  form. 

5.  It  throws  over  property  the  shield  of  beauty,  and  so 
checks,  and  finally  eradicates  the  rudeness  which  is  stimu- 
lated by  deformity. 


238  OUR   SCHOOL-HOUSES. 

6.  It  forms  one  of  those  influences  which  have  most 
power  over  the  heart  and  affections,  directly  aiding  the 
teacher  in  the  most  difficult  and  important  part  of  his 
work. 

Let  this  principle  be  remembered  by  all :  "  That  school- 
houses,  however  small,  should  never  be  built  without 
conforming  to  those  general  principles  of  taste  which  are 
universally  recognized  by  cultivated  people/'  so  that  if 
they  do  not  exert  a  positive  influence  in  elevating  taste, 
at  least  they  will  have  the  negative  excellence  of  not 
violating  it.  The  work  of  education  in  those  higher  de- 
partments, which  recognizes  beauty  both  of  form  and 
morals,  and  the  subtile  and  mysterious  relations  which 
exist  between  the  two,  at  best,  is  an  onerous  and  difficult 
one,  and  every  external  influence  which  assists  in  for- 
warding it  becomes  a  positive  benefit. 


Fig.  99. 


APPENDIX. 


GRADED   SCHOOLS. 

THE  general  consolidation  of  separate  districts  into  town  schools 
must  give  a  renewed  impulse  to  the  building  of  school-houses.  The 
supervision  of  schools  passing  into  the  hands  of  more  experienced 
and  thoughtful  men  cannot  fail  to  exert  a  beneficial  influence  in 
this  direction.  The  following  extracts,  from  the  report  of  the  Hon. 
A.  E.  Rankin,  Secretary  of  the  Vermont  Board  of  Education,  in 
1869,  contain  unanswerable  arguments  in  favor  of  the  abolishment 
of  the  old,  isolated  district  system.  Although  designed  specially 
for  Vermont,  the  same  arguments  will  apply  to  other  parts  of  the 
country  as  well. 


TOWN    SYSTEM   VERSUS   DISTKICT    SYSTEM. 

While  we  strive  assiduously  so  to  economize  as  not  to  increase 
the  expense  of  our  educational  system,  we  do  not  take  proper  pains 
that  the  money  which  is  annually  expended  shall  be  so  applied  as 
to  secure  the  largest  return. 

Let  me  enumerate  some  of  the  prominent  obstacles  which  are  in 
the  way  of  the  greater  efficiency  of  our  schools  : 

1.  Total  lack  of  or  insufficient  supervision. 

2.  Constant  change  of  supervision. 

3.  Poorly  qualified  teachers. 

4.  Constant  change  of  teachers. 

5.  Lack  of  interest  in  schools  on  the  part  of  patrons. 

6.  Employment  of  relatives  and  favorites  without   regard  to 
qualifications. 

1.  Too  small  schools  in  many  districts. 


240  APPENDIX. 

8.  Too  short  schools  in  small  districts. 

9.  Employment  of  immature  and  incompetent  teachers  in  small 
districts. 

10.  Poor  school-houses. 

11.  Irregular  attendance. 

12.  General  lack  of  facilities  to  aid  the  teacher. 

13.  'No  schools  at  all  in  many  districts. 

14.  Lack  of  proper  classification. 

15.  Pupils  study  what  they  choose,  and  not  what  they  ought. 

These  twice  seven  and  one  plagues  of  our  common-school  sys- 
tem will  be  recognized  by  every  one  who  has  had  any  experience 
in  connection  with  the  public  schools  of  the  State. 

If  it  could  be  shown  that  this  nest  of  evils  which  so  impairs  the 
efficiency  of  our  schools  could  in  some  measure  be  removed  by  a 
radical  change  of  system,  no  one  surely  would  oppose  such  change. 

I  am  confident  that  these  evils  may  in  very  great  measure  be 
alleviated  by  a  change  in  our  system  of  public  schools.  I  believe 
that  the  adoption  of  what  is  called  the  town  system,  in  contradis- 
tinction from  the  district  system,  would  tend  largely  to  diminish 
them. 

I  know  there  are  obstacles  in  the  way  of  the  consummation  of 
so  desirable  an  end  as  the  reduction  of  the  number  of  schools. 
But  if  it  can  satisfactorily  be  shown  that  there  can  be  not  only  a 
large  saving  in  expense,  but  that  our  schools  can  be  increased  in 
efficiency,  I  doubt  not  these  obstacles  can  be  removed.  Let  us,  in 
a  somewhat  general  way,  discuss  some  of  the  disadvantages  which 
result  from  the  present  system. 

Teachers  understand  how  impossible  it  is  to  secure  in  a  small 
school,  or  in  a  small  class,  that  healthful  and  proper  stimulus  which 
is  almost  an  incident  to  the  large  school  or  the  large  class.  One 
who  has  himself  ever  been  an  entire  class,  or  one  of  two  or  three 
constituting  a  class,  will  remember  how  difficult  it  was  to  create  in 
himself  any  such  measure  of  interest  as  would  make  the  labor  of 
preparation  other  than  a  dreary  task.  And  this  evil  extends  to  the 
teacher  as  well  as  to  the  pupil.  He,  too,  needs  stimulus. 

The  small  district  fails  to  secure  that  aggregate  of  interest  on 
the  part  of  the  inhabitants  toward  the  school  which  is  essential  to 
make  it  successful.  This  aggregate  of  interest  is  the  sum  total  ot 
individual  interest.  Five  families  have  less  interest  in  a  school 


APPENDIX.  241 

titan  have  ten,  ten  less  than  fifteen,  and  so  on.  The  teacher  thus 
receives  less  stimulus  from  his  surroundings  in  small  than  in  large 
districts.  So  with  the  pupils. 

A  careful  examination  of  the  statute  will  disclose  the  fact  that 
the  duties  imposed  upon  the  school  committee  are  the  most  im-' 
portant  duties  committed  to  the  citizens  of  the  State ;  that  in  their 
keeping  are  the  highest  interests  of  the  State.  Properly  to  dis- 
charge the  duties  of  this  office,  one  should  possess  high  moral 
character,  great  natural  endowments,  large  measure  of  mental  dis- 
cipline, an  unusual  degree  of  intelligence,  good  practical  common 
sense,  broad  and  liberal  views,  sound  judgment,  and  a  fervent  love 
for  the  welfare  of  the  State,  quickened  by  the  recognition  of  the 
fact  that  its  permanence  and  security  depend  upon  the  efficiency 
of  its  schools. 

Under  the  present  system,  the  educational  interests  of  the  town 
are  in  the  keeping  of  from  thirty  to  one  hundred  officials,  consist- 
ing of  prudential  committee,  district  clerks,  the  town  clerk,  and 
the  superintendent.  "What  town  in  the  State  can  furnish  this 
maximum  number  of  men,  competent  to  hold  this  important  trust  ? 
How  many  of  the  two  hundred  and  forty-three  towns  of  the  State 
could  furnish  the  maximum  number  ?  How  many  could  not  fur- 
nish five  men  who,  by  native  gifts  and  acquirements,  are  fitted  for 
these  duties  ? 

Is  not  our  present  system  defective  in  that  it  requires  too  many 
officers  ?  The  average  number  of  individuals  in  each  town,  who 
are  the  school  officers  of  the  town,  will  be  found  to  be  from  fifty 
to  sixty,  if  we  estimate  three  prudential  committees  to  each  dis- 
trict ;  the  whole  number  of  school  officers  in  the  State,  something 
more  than  twelve  thousand.  Such  an  army  ought  to  do  the  work 
well,  we  say.  Yet,  who  does  not  believe  that  one-fifth  the  number 
would  do  it  far  better  ?  This  gives  one  school  officer  for  every 
seven  school  children.  What  an  absurdity  !  Who  believes  in  this 
multiplicity  of  supervisors,  which  almost  inevitably  results  in  no 
supervision  at  all  ?  Why  not  elect  a  board  of  selectmen,  fifty  in 
number  ?  Who  would  care  to  live  in  a  town  thus  supervised  ?  Is 
it  not  that  three  men  are  found  better  than  fifty,  that  three  are 
elected  ?  Six  men  competent  for  the  duties  of  the  school  depart- 
ment of  the  town  would  be  infinitely  more  efficient  than  fifty,  even 
if  it  were  possible  to  secure  fifty  men  as  competent  as  the  six. 

16 


242  APPENDIX. 

But  this  large  number  of  school  officers  necessitates  the  selec- 
tion of  incompetent  men,  many  of  whom  have  little  interest  and 
less  ability.  The  average  ability  of  six  of  the  best  men  of  a  town 
is,  let  us  say,  twice  as  great  as  the  average  ability  of  the  best 
'twelve,  and  four  times  as  great  as  the  average  ability  of  the  best 
twenty-four,  and  eight  times  as  great  as  that  of  the  best  forty- 
eight.  This  is  not  perhaps  the  exact  ratio,  but  it  illustrates  what 
is  meant,  that  within  certain  limits,  just  in  proportion  as  you  in- 
crease the  size  of  your  board,  just  in  that  proportion  do  you  di- 
minish its  aggregate  of  ability  and  efficiency.  Six  men  of  inferior 
ability,  associated  with  six  men  of  superior  ability,  give  for  a  re- 
sultant a  mean  between  the  two  ;  this  is  when  they  are  properly 
disposed  and  work  with  some  degree  of  harmony ;  when  not  so 
disposed,  the  former  may  and  often  do  neutralize  the  efficiency  of 
the  latter.  I  believe,  then,  in  this  regard,  that  our  system  is  radi- 
cally defective,  that  it  necessitates  a  train  of  evils  which  cannot  be 
averted  while  it  exists  ;  that  in  no  other  department  of  the  govern- 
ment can  be  found  such  inefficiency,  misjudgment,  mismanage- 
ment, and  general  demoralization.  It  may  seem  presumptuous  in 
me  to  attack  a  system  which  has  been  in  operation  for  so  many 
years,  and  to  which  the  people  have  become  attached,  which  has 
resulted  in  so  great  good  to  the  State,  and  has  given  Vermont  a 
prestige  in  which  her  sons  may  well  feel  an  honest  pride.  But  it 
is  unwise  to  allow  the  success  of  the  public  schools  of  the  past  to 
blind  us  to  the  defects  of  our  system.  "We  must  not  forget  that 
the  position  of  the  State,  like  that  of  the  individual,  is  relative. 
While  our  sister  States  were  reaping  a  lesser  percentage  of  profit 
than  the  percentage  which,  by  the  faithfulness  of  the  friends  of 
education,  was  secured  to  Vermont,  in  spite  of  our  monstrous  and 
hydra-headed  system,  we  held  a  position  of  honor  and  eminence. 
But  to-day,  when  other  States,  by  abolishing  or  modifying  old  sys- 
tems, and  thereby  utilizing  a  larger  percentage  of  their  working 
power,  that  very  position  which  was  but  just  now  one  of  superi- 
ority has  become  one  of  inferiority. 

The  State  is  a  unit,  for  certain  purposes.  The  county  is  a  unit, 
for  certain  purposes.  The  town  is  a  unit,  for  certain  other  pur- 
poses. For  the  purposes  of  education  the  district  has  been  re- 
garded as  a  unit.  For  almost  every  other  purpose  the  town  has 
been  found  to  be  the  true  unit.  Indeed,  in  several  respects,  in  the 


APPENDIX.  243 

educational  department  even,  the  town  district  system  prevails. 
Would  it  not  be  wiser  to  make  the  town  a  unit  for  educational 
purposes  ?  This  question  merits  further  discussion. 

It  is  quite  natural  to  think  that  a  teacher  who  can  be  secured  for 
a  small  stipend  will  answer  for  a  "  small  school,"  so  that  small 
schools  will  in  general  be  taught  by  teachers  who  could  not  secure 
situations  in  larger  ones,  and  would  fail  if  they  did. 

Small  districts  will  be  likely  to  have  poor  school-houses.  The 
expense  of  building  and  repairing  falls  heavily  upon  ten  or  a  dozen 
tax-payers.  And  the  old  school-houses,  many  of  them  unfit  even 
for  stalled  cattle,  will  have  to  serve  till  that  time  when  we  have 
grown  wiser  and  adopted  a  new  order  of  things ;  for  there  is  no 
hope  under  the  present  system  that  the  future  will  afford  relief. 
The  population,  except  at  business  centres,  is  year  by  year  gradu- 
ally growing  less. 

Small  districts  are  far  less  likely  to  furnish  those  facilities  for 
illustration  and  reference  so  necessary  to  the  teacher.  Indeed, 
everything  which  involves  an  expenditure  is  likely  to  remain  un- 
done. The  committee-man  feels  like  being  very  economical  when 
he  reflects  that  he  will  be  assessed  one-tenth  of  any  expenditure ;  so 
that  globes,  dictionaries,  and  maps,  and  all  school-apparatus,  arc 
excluded  from  the  school. 

Change  from  the  district  to  the  town  system  would  result  in  a 
more  efficient  supervision.  Almost  every  town  can  select  a  board 
of  men  competent  to  look  after  the  interests  of  the  public  school. 
This  is  not  true  of  one-half  of  the  districts  of  the  State.  A  choice 
from  ten  men  gives  poorer  chance  of  proper  supervision  than  a 
choice  from  three  or  five  hundred. 

Such  change  would  result  in  a  more  permanent  supervision. 
Small  communities  are  more  severely  democratic  than  larger  ones.. 
Every  man  must  have  his  share  of  the  honor,  and  take  his  turn 
at  the  wheel,  without  regard  to  competency. 

Making  one  central  board  of  supervision  would  render  possible 
competitive  examinations,  which  are  now  practically  impossible. 
Such  examinations  would  immediately  shut  out  the  most  incom- 
petent of  our  teachers.  They  would  discourage  girls,  scarcely 
beyond  the  age  which  the  law  designates  as  infancy,  from  seeking 
places  in  our  schools  as  teachers,  when  they  should  be  there  as- 
pupils. 


244  APPENDIX. 

Fewer  daughters,  and  nieces,  and  wives'  sisters  would  be  em- 
ployed. Even  when  they  are  thoroughly  competent,  their  employ- 
ment is  often  seen  to  awaken  such  spirit  of  antagonism  as  will 
impair  the  efficiency  of  the  school.  Nepotism  is  as  baneful  an 
evil  in  the  politics  of  the  school  district  as  in  the  broader  field  of 
the  State  and  the  nation. 

Again,  a  better  class  of  teachers  would  be  secured  in  the  smaller 
districts.  It  could  not  be  expected  that  all  the  schools  of  a  town 
would  be  of  equal  size.  The  larger  ones,  the  village  schools,  as 
now,  would  secure  the  best  teachers  without  regard  to  expense. 
The  lesser  communities,  noticing  that  they  were  obliged  to  help 
support  good  schools  and  pay  large  prices  to  the  teachers  of  the 
larger  schools,  would  very  soon  begin  to  feel  that  if  they  were 
obliged  to  help  support  good  schools  for  their  townsmen,  it  would 
be  wise  for  them  to  compel  their  townsmen  to  help  sustain  good 
schools  for  them. 

This  change  of  supervision  would  tend  to  remove  the  evil  of  a 
constant  change  of  teachers.  Permanency  of  supervision  would 
result  in  permanency  of  teachers.  The  frequency  of  change  in 
teachers  is  a  most  alarming  evil  with  us.  It  breaks  up  all  con- 
nection between  one  term  and  another.  Each  teacher  has  his  own 
ways,  and  it  takes  some  time  to  get  out  of  the  old  ways  and  into 
the  new,  and  quite  a  portion  of  each  term  is  spent  in  getting 
started.  It  thus  often  happens  that  a  term  is  one-third  spent 
before  the  work  is  well  begun.  It  requires  a  term  of  ordinary 
length  for  a  teacher  to  become  familiar  with  the  peculiar  charac- 
teristics of  his  pupils.  ~No  very  efficient  work  can  be  done  till  this 
is  known.  He  has  first  to  learn  their  needs  and  their  capacities 
before  he  can  adapt  his  instruction  to  the  necessities  of  each  pupil. 
An  ordinary  teacher,  who  has  taught  a  school  for  one  term,  will 
do  more  for  that  school  than  one  of  superior  endowments  and 
.acquirements  who  is  an  entire  stranger  to  the  wants  of  the  school. 
Perpetual  change -of  teachers  and  inspectors  of  schools  utterly 
ignores  the  value  of  experience.  I  can  conceive  of  no  remedy  for 
these  evils  which  will  be  likely  to  prove  so  efficient  as  this  change 
of  system. 

Again,  this  change  would  result  in  a  democratic  equalization  of 
the  burden  of  supporting  schools.  It  now  costs  each  tax-payer  in 
a  small  district  more  to  support  a  poor  school  than  it  costs  the  tax- 


APPENDIX.  245 

payer  in  the  larger  district  to  support  a  good  school.  Statistics 
show  that  the  expense  per  pupil  increases  in  the  inverse  ratio  as 
the  size  of  the  school  diminishes. 

Why  should  not  taxation  for  the  support  of  schools  be  equal- 
ized ?  Equity  demands  that  it  should.  Every  reason  which  can 
be  urged  in  favor  of  good  schools  demands  that  it  should. 

The  district  system  stands  in  the  way  of  the  introduction  of  the 
graded  system.  I  make  this  statement  upon  the  supposition  that 
there  is  no  probability  that  district  lines  will  be  changed  until 
some  other  than  the  district  system  is  adopted.  True,  this  might 
be  done.  Districts  might  be  reorganized  and  their  geographical 
boundaries  changed ;  but  they  never  will  be  while  the  old  system 
remains. 

'No  one,  I  suppose,  at  this  day  assumes  to  doubt  the  wisdom  of 
the  application  of  the  principle  of  division  of  labor,  as  applied  to 
the  mechanical  pursuits.  The  manufacturer  who  should  require 
each  workman  to  make  all  parts  of  a  watch,  would  find  that  he 
could  not  compete  with  his  rival  who  put  each  workman  upon  a 
single  piece.  Even  in  the  manufacture  of  boots  and  shoes,  where 
no  great  mechanical  genius  is  required,  it  is  found  to  be  economy 
to  allow  each  man  to  do  a  distinct  part,  so  that  the  boot  or  shoe  is 
not  the  work  of  one  hand,  but  of  several.  Confined  to  one  class 
of  work,  the  workman  becomes  more  skillful,  and  turns  off  work 
more  rapidly ;  his  tools  are  fewer  and  ready  at  hand,  and  there  is 
no  loss  of  time  in  changing  from  one  piece  to  another.  If  this  be 
economy  in  the  mechanical  pursuits,  how  much  more  apparent  is 
the  wisdom  of  applying  this  principle  to  the  more  delicate  and 
responsible  work  of  developing  and  training  the  human  mind  ? 

Now  this  is  the  principle  upon  which  the  graded  school  is  based. 
It  is  found  that  the  teacher  who  teaches  a  few  branches,  and  con- 
centrates all  his  time  and  efforts  upon  these  branches,  can  give 
more  efficient  instruction  than  the  one  who  attempts  to  teach  all. 
It  is  upon  this  principle,  in  part,  that  each  college  professor  has 
his  distinct  department.  To  this  may  be  added  the  reasonable 
expectation  that  if  one  has  to  teach  but  one  department  or  grade, 
he  will  be  likely  to  work  in  that  department  or  grade  where  he 
can  work  with  the  most  ease  to  himself,  and  consequently  with 
the  greatest  profit  to  the  school.  Teachers  who  are  eminently 
successful  in  one  grade,  are  oftentimes  eminently  unsuccessful  in 


246  APPENDIX. 

another  grade  of  the  same  department ;  so  that  they,  like  other 
workmen,  soon  ascertain  what  their  special  province  is,  and  adapt 
themselves  to  it. 

This,  however,  is  not  the  most  substantial  argument  in  favor  of 
grading  schools.  A  graded  school,  is  simply  a  classified  school. 
Every  one  knows,  who  is  at  all  familiar  with  schools,  that  their 
success  depends  very  largely  upon  their  classification.  It  requires 
just  as  much  time  to  instruct  one  individual  as  to  instruct  a  class 
—just  as  long  to  instruct  a  class  of  three  as  a  class  of  twenty.  If 
your  school  has  as  many  classes  as  individuals,  and  this  often  hap- 
pens in  small  schools,  the  teacher's  time  is  frittered  away  to  little 
purpose.  !N"o  school  whose  curriculum  comprises  all  the  studies 
from  the  A  B  C  to  the  highest  branches  taught  in  the  common 
school,  can  be  thoroughly  classified  without  having  more  classes 
than  the  teacher  can  well  instruct. 

If  your  district  has  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  pupils,  it  is 
evidently  good  economy,  instead -of  dividing  them  without  regard 
to  advancement,  and  thus  making  the  curriculum  of  each  school 
as  comprehensive  as  the  curriculum  of  the  whole  would  have  been, 
to  divide  them  with  reference  to  advancement,  thereby  diminish- 
ing the  number  of  classes  in  each  department  to  one-third  or 
one-fourth  the  number  which  would  otherwise  be  required.  And 
probably  it  will  be  found  that  the  number  of  pupils  which  would 
require  four  teachers  without  proper  classification,  would,  when 
classified,  be  well  taught  by  three  teachers,  at  a  saving  of  one-fourth 
the  expense,  and  with  far  better  results. 

Every  teacher  knows  how  difficult  it  is  to  make  an  impression 
upon  a  heterogeneous  mass  grouped  together  and  called  a  class — 
made  up  of  pupils  pursuing  the  same  studies,  indeed — but  of 
diverse  age,  diverse  capacity,  and  diverse  acquirement,  as  is  usual 
in  an  ungraded  school. 

The  more  gifted  and  accomplished  are  held  back,  while  those 
of  lesser  gifts  and  acquirements  are  dragged  on  beyond  their 
strength.  The  former  grow  lazy  and  indifferent ;  the  latter  dis- 
couraged and  disgusted.  The  former  acquire  an  overweening 
confidence  in  their  own  abilities ;  the  latter  fail  to  cultivate  that 
healthful  self-appreciation  essential  to  success,  which  is  naturally 
developed  by  association  with  one's  peers.  Thus  it  happens  that 
all  stimulus,  both  to  the  bright  and  the  dull,  is  removed. 


APPENDIX.  247 

Besides,  it  is  impossible  for  any  teacher  to  adapt  his  instruction 
to  the  varied  capacities  and  diverse  accomplishments  of  unclassified 
classes.  This  is  difficult  enough  in  a  class  which  has  been  selected 
and  grouped  with  reference  to  like  capacities  and  similar  acquire- 
ments. If  he  adapts  his  instruction  to  the  more  advanced,  it  will  be 
beyond  the  comprehension  of  those  less  advanced.  If,  on  the  other 
hand,  it  is  adapted  to  the  needs  of  those  less  gifted,  it  becomes 
tedious  and  uninstructive  to  the  others.  Thus  will  all  the  interest 
be  dissipated,  while,  if  well  classified,  each  individual  spirits  the 
other.  Mutual  labor  and  mutual  sympathy  are  powerful  stimu- 
lants, especially  to  the  young.  Each  spurs  and  supports  the  other, 
and  industry  and  diligence  is  secured  in  all. 

Again,  the  graded  school  furnishes  additional  inducement  to 
effort  in  this  way :  Each  class  has  its  specific  work,  and  no 
advancement  to  a  higher  grade  can  be  secured  until  that  work  is 
done.  Each  grade  is  a  position  which  cannot  be  reached  except 
by  passing  step  by  step  all  the  intermediate  ground.  The  pupils 
in  each  grade  have  the  perpetual  incitement  of  their  more  advanced 
associates.  From  one  grade  to  another  is  to  them  a  long  stride. 
It  seems  a  thing  worthy  to  strive  for.  Now  these  stimulants  are 
especially  needed  by  slow  and  not  over-gifted  minds,  and  to  this 
class  a  majority  of  children  belong.  The  result  is  that  progress 
is  far  more  rapid  and  thorough  in  a  graded  than  in  an  ungraded 
school. 

Still,  again,  the  graded  system  secures  a  systematic  course  of 
education.  Each  pupil  does  not  for  himself,  nor  can  his  parents 
for  him,  elect  this  study  or  that,  as  whim  or  caprice  may  dictate. 
He  must  take  each  in  due  time  and  order.  That  course  of  study 
is  prescribed  which  will  secure  the  best  and  most  symmetrical 
mental  development,  embracing  those  studies  a  knowledge  of 
which  is  likely  to  prove  of  the  most  practical  benefit  to  the  pupil 
in  the  business  pursuits  of  after-life. 

People  sometimes  wonder  that  academies  do  not  flourish  as  they 
did  years  ago.  They  are  not  only  dying  out  in  Vermont,  but  all 
over  the  country.  Massachusetts  has  but  few  left,  and  these  are 
for  the  most  part  graded  academies.  The  same  process  is  going 
on  in  New  York.  Within  the  last  few  years  one-third  of  the 
academies  in  this  State  have  become  extinct.  The  truth  is,  the 
old  academic  system  is  dead,  and  the  sooner  it  is  buried  beyond 


248  APPENDIX. 

resurrection,  the  better.  It  served  in  its  day  and  generation,  but 
belongs  to  the  past.  While  we  honor  it  for  the  good  it  has  done, 
if  we  are  wise,  we  shall  lay  it  away  in  a  napkin.  It  has  been  sup- 
planted by  something  which  is  better.  I  speak  only  of  ungraded 
academies. 

The  material  difference  between  the  academy  and  the  graded 
high-school  is,  that  the  latter  is  classified,  while  the  former,  gath- 
ering its  pupils  as  it  does  from  a  large  circuit,  and  changing  in  its 
elements  from  term  to  term,  cannot  be  classified. 

The  graded  school  has  also  this  other  advantage,  that  it  is  dem- 
ocratic. All  must  contribute  to  its  support,  and  all  may  avail 
themselves  of  its  advantages. 

These  graded  schools  have  been  established  in  many  of  the  large 
towns  of  Vermont.  There  are  many  other  towns  which  desire  and 
are  working  to  secure  them.  A  large  proportion  of  the  villages 
of  the  State  have,  within  a  radius  of  a  mile  and  a  half,  pupils  in 
sufficient  numbers  to  make  from  two  to  four  grades.  The  obstacles 
in  the  way  are  the  old  district  lines.  They  are  held  in  a  sort  of 
reverence.  I  don't  know  but  the  people  somehow  connect  them 
with  that  passage  of  Holy  Writ  which  pronounces  maledictions 
upon  those  who  remove  ancient  landmarks.  It  would  be  about  as 
easy  to  remove  the  equator  as  to  disturb  one  of  these  ancient  lines. 
Yermonters  seem  to  hate  everything  which  savors  of  innovation. 
But  we  must  not  forget  that  dislike  of  innovation  is  often  a  serious 
obstacle  to  progress.  The  people  will  be  slow  to  move  in  this 
direction.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  legislature  to  step  in  and  take  the 
responsibility,  if  it  can  be  seen  to  be  a  measure  which  should  be 
secured. 

It  is  thought  that  these  schools  are  more  expensive.  But  a  greater 
percentage  of  profit  is  often  secured  by  a  greater  expenditure. 
And  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  there  is  an  element  of  profit 
which  cannot  be  directly  and  positively  estimated.  It  is  that  in- 
fluence which  a  good  school  has  upon  the  prosperity  of  a  place. 
It  is  often  of  more  material  advantage  than  a  manufacturing 
company. 

It  may  be  doubted  if  the  aggregate  of  expenditure  for  educa- 
tional purposes  is  greater  in  a  village  where  there  is  a  well-organized 
and  judiciously-managed  graded  school,  than  in  a  village  of  the 
same  size  where  the  old  system  exists.  For,  from  the  expense  of 


APPENDIX.  249 

the  graded  school,  if  it  be  what  it  should  be,  may  be  deducted  the 
expenditure  of  the  support  of  a  dozen,  and  oftentimes  more,  chil- 
dren, who  from  lack  of  proper  educational  facilities  at  home,  are 
compelled  to  go  abroad.  And  beyond  doubt,  home  is  the  place  to 
educate  children.  Besides,  a  good  graded  school  has  an  income 
secured  by  the  attendance  of  pupils  from  abroad.  We  must  also, 
in  this  connection,  remember  that  the  many  whose  means  will  not 
allow  them  to  send  their  children  away  to  better  schools,  are 
abridged  in  the  privileges  which  they  might  enjoy,  had  they  all 
the  facilities  they  are  entitled  to  at  home. 

This  is  the  material  view  of  the  case.  Go  into  any  of  our  towns 
which  have  been  blessed  with  a  good  school  for  forty  or  fifty  years, 
and  you  will  find  the  aggregate  of  intelligence  to  be  far  greater 
than  in  those  towns  which  have  enjoyed  less  educational  facilities. 
Is  the  intelligence  of  its  inhabitants  nothing  to  a  town  ?  Is  not 
the  expenditure  which  shall  secure  this  a  good  investment  ?  True, 
we  cannot  estimate  it  in  greenbacks  ;  yet  it  is  an  investment  that 
will  make  its  return  in  kind.  It  is  an  invariable  rule  that  the  per- 
centage of  increase  of  valuation  of  property  in  any  community  is 
in  the  direct  ratio  of  the  increase  of  intelligence  and  virtue. 

Every  citizen  of  extraordinary  intelligence,  or  extraordinary  vir- 
tue, enhances  the  value  of  all  property  of  the  town  in  which  he 
lives.  By  just  so  much  as  you  add  to  the  virtue  and  intelligence 
of  the  inhabitants  of  the  town,  do  you  add  to  the  value  of  its 
acres.  It  is  thus  that  it  is  true  that  "  every  man's  sin  is  every 
other  man's  business."  It  is  just  as  true  that  every  man's  igno- 
rance is  every  other  man's  business. 

Hon.  Henry  Barnard  thus  sets  forth  the  evils  that  result  from 
the  lack  of  proper  classification  of  schools : 

"  From  the  number  of  class  and  individual  recitations,  to  be  at- 
tended to  during  each  half-day,  these  exercises  are  brief,  hurried,  and 
of  little  practical  value.  They  consist,  for  the  most  part,  of  sense- 
less repetitions  of  the  words  of  a  book.  Instead  of  being  the  time 
and  place  where  the  real  business  of  teaching  is  done,  where  the 
ploughshare  of  interrogation  is  driven  down  into  the  acquirements 
of  each  pupil,  and  his  ability  to  comprehend  clearly  is  cultivated 
and  tested ;  where  the  difficult  principles  of  each  lesson  are  de- 
veloped and  illustrated,  and  additional  information  imparted,  arid 
the  mind  of  the  teacher  brought  in  direct  contact  with  the  mind 
of  each  pupil,  to  arouse,  interest,  and  direct  its  opening  powers  ; 


250  APPENDIX. 

instead  of  all  this  and  more,  the  brief  period  passed  in  recitation, 
consists,  on  the  part  of  each  teacher,  of  hearing  each .  individual 
and  class,  in  regular  order  and  quick  succession,  repeat  words  from 
a  book,  and  on  the  part  of  the  pupils,  of  saying  their  lessons,  as 
the  operation  is  most  significantly  described  by  most  teachers, 
when  they  summon  the  class  to  the  stand.  In  the  mean  time  the 
order  of  the  school  must  be  maintained,  and  the  general  business 
must  go  forward.  Little  children,  without  any  authorized  employ- 
ment for  their  eyes  and  hands,  and  ever  active  curiosity,  must  be 
made  to  sit  still,  while  every  muscle  is  aching  from  suppressed 
activity ;  problems  must  be  solved,  excuses  for  tardiness  or  absence 
received,  questions  answered,  whisperings  allowed  or  suppressed, 
and  more  or  less  of  extempore  discipline  administered.  Were  it 
not  a  most  ruinous  waste  of  precious  time, — did  it  not  involve  the 
deadening,  crushing,  distorting,  dwarfing  of  immortal  faculties  and 
noble  sensibilities, — were  it  not  an  utter  perversion  of  the  noble 
objects  for  which  schools  are  instituted,  it  would  be  difficult  to  con- 
ceive of  a  more  diverting  farce  than  an  ordinary  session  of  a  large 
public  school,  whose  chaotic  and  discordant  elements  have  not 
been  reduced  to  system  by  proper  classification.  The  teacher,  at 
least  the  conscientious  teacher,  thinks  it  anything  but  a  farce  to 
him.  Compelled  to  hurry  from  one  study  to  another,  requiring  a 
knowledge  of  methods  altogether  distinct ;  from  one  recitation  to 
another,  equally  brief  and  unsatisfactory,  one  requiring  a  liveliness 
of  manner  that  he  does  not  feel  and  cannot  assume,  and  the  other 
closeness  of  attention  and  abstraction  of  thought,  which  he  cannot 
give  amid  the  multiplicity  and  variety  of  cares ;  from  one  case  of 
discipline  to  another  pressing  on  him  at  the  same  time — he  goes 
through  the  same  circuit,  day  after  day,  with  a  dizzy  brain  and 
aching  heart,  and  brings  his  school  to  a  close  .with  a  feeling  that 
with  all  his  diligence  and  fidelity  he  has  accomplished  but  little 
good." 

It  may  be  urged  against  the  abrogation  of  this  old  system,  that 
the  people  will  not  willingly  surrender  these  powers  which  the 
statute  has  conferred  upon  them, — the  controlling  of  their  own 
schools.  But  they  surrender  no  power.  It  still  remains  in  their 
hands.  The  only  difference  is  that  they  act  upon  the  matter 
in  a  larger  assemblage,  and  under  certain  restraints  which  will  be 
likely  to  insure  better  results. 

A  small  minority  in  a  district  meeting  often,  by  preconcerted 
action,  can  prevent  the  having  schools  at  all,  or  limit  them  to  the 
shortest  possible  time,  or  impair  their  usefulness  when  in  opera- 
tion. Now  these  ends  could  not  be  obtained  in  the  town  meeting. 


APPENDIX.  251 

It  is  far  more  likely  that  wise  and  judicious  measures  will  be 
adopted  in  a  town  than  in  a  district  meeting,  both  on  account  of 
the  healthful  counterbalance  which  is  always  found  in  a  larger 
assemblage,  made  up  of  many  who  have  no  personal  and  direct  in- 
terest in  the  matter  upon  wrhich  they  act,  as  well  as  from  the  fact 
that  the  controlling  minds  in  the  former  are  likely  to  be  wiser  and 
of  greater  experience.  I  think  it  is  true,  as  Mr.  Boutwell  suggests 
in  a  paper  which  I  append,  that  the  district  system  is  thoroughly 
anti-republican.  It  may  secure  what  is  thought  to  be  the  greatest 
good  to  the  greatest  number,  but  it  often  utterly  fails  to  secure  the 
greatest  aggregate  of  good  to  all,  which  is  the  end  that  true  re- 
publicanism aims  to  secure. 

It  may  be  objected  that  it  would  not  be  right  to  compel  chil- 
dren to  go  so  far  to  school,  as  would  be  necessary  if  districts  were 
consolidated.  It  certainly  would  be  right  if  thereby  greater  good 
would  come  to  the  State.  The  State  certainly  has  the  right  to 
regulate  and  control  in  all  matters  upon  which  the  efficiency  of  its 
schools  depends.  JSTor  is  it  simply  a  right ;  it  is  a  sacred  duty. 
Which  is  better  for  the  child,  that  he  shall  go  a  half-mile  to  a  poor 
school,  or  that  he  should  go  twice  or  thrice  that  distance  to  a  good 
school  ?  It  would  be  far  cheaper  for  those  residing  in  the  remote 
parts  of  a  district  to  carry  their  children — each  taking  his  turn,  or 
together  hiring  some  one  to  do  this — than  to  support  a  school  by 
themselves. 

The  following  remarks  upon  this  point,  which  I  have  chanced 
upon  since  writing  the  above,  from  the  Report  of  the  Agent  of  the 
Board  of  Education  for  Massachusetts  for  the  year  1869,  are  wor- 
thy of  perusal :  /^  5. 

(  l 

"In  one  district  a  ssfroolhas  been  k^pt  for  a  single  scholar  at  an 

expense  of  between  $60*  an<}.  $*P-  In  almost  every  town  that  I 
have  visited  I  am  satisfied  this  difficulty  could  be  remedied,  with- 
out great  inconvenience,  by  reducing  the  number  of  schools,  thus 
giving  to  each  a  larger  number  of  pupils,  and  with  no  more,  but 
perhaps  even  less,  money  than  has  heretofore  been  annually  appro- 
priated, securing  for  them  all  a  longer  period  of  instruction  and  a 
better  class  of  teachers.  It  was  said  very  truthfully,  a  few  years 
since,  by  the  committee  of  a  town  in  Franklin  County, — the  one  to 
which  1  have  referred  as  quite  recently  manifesting  such  opposition 
to  the  legal  requirement, — in  which,  with  one  hundred  and  twenty- 
three  school  children,  there  were  ten  districts,  some  containing 


252  APPENDIX. 

'  not  more  than  four  or  five  scholars,'  such  a  '  town  ought  to  appro- 
priate more  money,  or  reduce  the  number  of  districts.'  '  Reducing 
the  number  of  schools  from  ten  to  six,  which  we  think  might  be 
done  without  great  inconvenience  to  the  people,  would  save  the 
expense  of  maintaining  four  schools,  and  the  schools  wrould  in  our 
opinion  be  greatly  improved,  a  better  class  of  teachers  employed, 
and  the  intellectual,  social,  and  moral  condition  of  the  schools 
would  be  promoted.  It  will  be  said  that  in  a  sparse  population 
like  ours,  the  trouble  of  collecting  all  our  scholars  into  six  schools 
would  more  than  balance  the  advantages,  especially  in  winter. 
This  objection  is  more  specious  than  solid.  In  almost  all  the  dis- 
tricts, those  who  have  female  scholars  attending,  convey  them  to 
and  from  school  in  their  sleighs  or  sleds,  and  when  the  horse  is 
harnessed  it  makes  but  little  difference  whether  you  drive  him  one 
mile  or  two ;  at  the  same  time  you  are  beating  the  snow  and  open- 
ing good  roads  to  the  traveller,  and  bettering  the  social  condition 
of  your  neighborhood.  But  one  practical  truth  is  more  convincing 
than  many  theories.  How  do  we  act  when  the  money  is  drawn 
directly  from  our  own  pockets,  as  it  is  in  supporting  private  or 
select  schools  ?  Would  the  town  sustain  ten  private  schools  to 
save  travel  ?  Do  they  not  devise  6  ways  and  means'  to  get  to 
school  beyond  the  limits  of  their  own  districts  ?  Suppose  there 
were  fifty  scholars  in  town  to  attend  those  schools,  would  any  one 
think  it  worth  while  to  have  five  schools,  because  it  might  save  a 
little  travel  or  other  inconvenience  ?  Why  should  we  be  more 
careful  of  money  when  we  pay  it  voluntarily,  than  when  it  is 
drawn  from  us  in  the  form  of  taxes  ?" 


Now  I  assume  that  every  tax-payer  of  Vermont  has  a  direct  in- 
terest in  any  change  which  will  insure  the  best  possible  schools  at 
the  least  expense,  and  will  not  refuse  to  countenance  and  encour- 
age any  change  which  will  secure  better  schools  at  a  less  cost ;  for 
we  are  proverbially  a  thrifty  people. 

Wise  men  learn  from  the  experience  of  others.  If  the  experi- 
ence of  others  is  less  impressive  than  our  own,  it  has  at  least  the 
advantage  of  being  far  cheaper. 

Several  of  our  sister  States,  which  had  formerly  a  district  system 
similar  to  our  own,  have  abolished  that  system  and  substituted 
therefor  the  system  of  town  supervision,  which  places  the  schools 
of  the  town  under  the  control  of  a  town  board,  elected  by  the 
town.  In  some  instances  this  change  has  been  secured  gradually 
— legislatures  authorizing  towns  to  change  when  they  vote  so  to 
do.  Of  course  this  gradual  change  is  slow.  I  cannot  ascertain 


APPENDIX.  253 

that  any  State  which  has  once  inaugurated  the  movement  has  been 
willing  to  go  back  to  the  old  order  of  things.  And  it  is  stated  by 
Secretary  Boutwell  that  no  town  in  Massachusetts,  that  had  tried 
the  new  order  for  two  years,  ever  turned  to  the  old.  These  facts 
are  significant. 

I  append  an  extract  from  one  of  Mr.  BoutwelFs  annual  reports, 
made  to  the  Massachusetts  Board  of  Education  when  he  was 
Secretary  of  that  body.  These  remarks  were  thought  so  con- 
clusive and  of  such  value  that  they  were  printed  by  themselves  as 
a  circular  and  distributed  throughout  the  State.  I  am  glad  to 
append  them,  because  I  am  compelled  to  treat  the  subject  altogether 
in  a  general  way  and  upon  general  principles,  being  entirely  with- 
out experience  or  observation.  I  feel  that  the  opinion  of  Mr. 
Boutwell,  based  as  it  is  upon  thorough  knowledge  of  the  results 
of  both  systems  as  they  were  tried  side  by  side,  will  have 
greater  weight  than  any  arguments  I  can  urge : 

"  The  laws  of  1859,  abolishing  the  district  system  and  transfer- 
ring the  duty  of  selecting  teachers  from  the  prudential  to  the 
superintending  committees,  having  been  repealed  by  the  same 
legislature,  at  its  autumn  session,  there  has  been  but  little  oppor- 
tunity for  testing  the  new  system.  The  history  of  the  proceedings 
of  the  legislature  of  1859  furnishes  abundant  evidence  of  a  desire 
to  promote  the  interests  of  learning,  and  the  passage  of  the  meas- 
ures in  question  was  in  harmony  with  that  desire. 

"  When  the  committee  on  education  were  considering  the  ex- 
pediency of  abolishing  the  district  system,  I  expressed  the  opinion 
that  the  people  were  not  prepared  to  accept  the  change  without 
serious  opposition  in  some  counties.  I  was  myself  unwilling  to 
make  an  educational  measure  the  subject  of  public  controversy  in 
the  State,  and  much  more  unwilling  to  connect  our  educational 
policy,  as  a  Commonwealth,  with  the  fortunes  of  any  political  party. 
Under  these  circumstances,  I  could  not  advise  the  passage  of  the 
law,  yet  I  did  not  for  a  moment  doubt  the  patriotic  and  laudable 
purposes  of  the  committee,  or  the  real  wisdom  of  the  change  con- 
templated, if  the  people  were  prepared  to  accept  it.  And  I  am 
now  constrained  to  declare,  as  the  result  of  extensive  correspond- 
ence and  interchange  of  sentiment  with  the  people  of  the  State, 
that  their  attachment  to  the  district  system  is  not  as  strong  as 
I  formerly  supposed,  and  that  a  large  majority  are  prepared  to 
accept  its  unqualified  abolition.  It  may  not,  however,  be  wise  to 
legislate  upon  the  subject  immediately ;  but  I  deem  this  a  fit  oc- 
casion to  invite  the  inhabitants  of  the  towns  where  districts  still 


254  APPENDIX. 

exist  to  take  the  matter  into  their  own  hands,  and  reconstruct  their 
school  system  upon  a  basis  which  will  admit  of  economy,  progress, 
and  efficiency.  I  entered  upon  the  duties  of  the  office  I  now  hold 
with  some  faith  in  the  district  system ;  my  observation  and  ex- 
perience have  destroyed  that  faith  entirely.  It  is  a  system  admi- 
rably calculated  to  secure  poor  schools,  incompetent  teachers, 
consequent  waste  of  public  money,  and  yet  neither  committees, 
nor  districts,  nor  towns  be  responsible  therefor. 

•"  It  is  unquestionably  true  that  the  best  schools  are  found  where 
the  district  system  does  not  exist ;  and  the  charge,  in  a  few  in- 
stances made  or  suggested,  that  there  has  been  no  improvement  for 
twenty-five  years,  is  limited  in  its  origin  and  in  its  truthful  appli- 
cation to  those  towns  which  are  divided  into  districts.  "Whenever 
a  town  has  established  the  municipal  system,  and  adhered  to  it  for 
two  years,  there  has  never  within  my  knowledge  been  a  serious 
effort  in  favor  of  the  restoration  of  the  district  system.  These 
facts  are  so  encouraging  and  so  conclusive,  that  they  ought,  without 
argument,  to  convince  the  most  skeptical.  The  great  object  of  the 
people  is  the  establishment  of  good  schools  at  the  least  cost,  and 
they  have  no  interest  in  the  district  system  when  it  fails  to  secure 
these  ends. 

"  Practically,  the  district  system  denies  the  value  of  experience. 
Each  year  sees  a  new  prudential  committee-man,  and  each  term  a 
new  teacher.  The  experience  of  a  year  is  rendered  valueless  by 
the  election  of  a  new  committee;  and  the  teacher  labors  for  a 
single  term,  commencing  without  a  knowledge  of  what  the  pupils 
have  previously  accomplished,  and  ending  without  an  interest  in 
their  future. 

"  Under  these  circumstances,  it  is  not  strange  that  district 
schools  are  kept,  term  after  term,  and  year  after  year,  without  an 
appreciable  increase  of  power. 

"  The  quality  of  the  school  depends  upon  the  character  of  the 
teacher ;  and  the  character  of  the  teacher  depends  upon  accident, 
or  the  caprice,  prejudices,  or  convenience  of  the  committee-man. 
Each  teacher  brings  into  the  school  his  own  ideas  of  teaching,  and 
after  two,  three,  or  four  months,  he  goes  away,  and  his  place  is 
taken  by  a  stranger,  who  introduces  new  methods,  without  the 
judgment  of  anybody  concerning  their  relative  value.  The  suc- 
cessive terms  of  school  in  the  same  district  have  not,  usually,  any 
personal  or  educational  connection  with  each  other.  Each  term  is 
an  experiment  which  proves  nothing  but  its  own  failure  or  com 
parative  success ;  and  it  does  not  even  furnish,  either  in  its  failure 
or  its  success,  a  basis  for  future  operations. 

"  The  district  itself  is  a  questionable  organization.  More  fre- 
quently than  otherwise  it  has  no  legal  existence ;  and  whenever  a 
vote  authorizing  the  levy  of  a  tax  is  resisted,  the  courts  usually 
find  it  difficult  to  sustain  the  proceedings  of  the  district. 


APPENDIX.  255 

"  There  are  in  the  cities  and  towns  of  Massachusetts  three  dis- 
tinct school  systems.  First,  the  municipal  system.  Where  this 
exists  the  towns  erect  and  support  the  school-houses,  and  confide 
to  the  superintending  committees  the  selection  of  teachers.  This 
system  exists  in  eighty  or  a  hundred  cities  and  towns,  which  to- 
gether probably  contain  more  than  one-half  of  the  population  of 
the  State,  and,  in  the  character  of  their  schools,  they  are  far  in 
advance  of  the  rest  of  the  Commonwealth. 

"  In  the  second  class,  about  fifty  in  number,  the  town  erect  and 
support  the  school-houses,  but  the  territory  is  divided  into  districts, 
and  the  power  to  select  teachers  is  confided  to  prudential  commit- 
tees. 

"  The  third  class  comprises  those  towns  whose  territory  is 
divided  into  districts,  and  in  which  each  district  is  charged  with 
the  duty  of  selecting  its  teachers  and  providing  a  school-house. 

"  In  most  towns  where  this  system  exists,  the  districts  are  too 
numerous,  the  school-houses  are  poor  and  inconvenient,  and  the 
number  of  pupils  is  insufficient  to  constitute  a  good  school.  Dis- 
tricts containing  less  than  twelve  pupils  each,  may  be  enumerated 
by  the  hundred.  It  is  quite  likely  that  in  the  sparsely  peopled 
sections  of  the  State,  a  necessity  for  small  districts  occasionally 
exists ;  but  it  is  a  manifest  public  right  to  require  pupils  to  travel 
from  one  to  two  miles  to  school,  according  to  circumstances,  rather 
than  incur  the  expense  of  sustaining  small,  and,  of  course,  poor 
schools.  Moreover,  the  interest  of  the  family  is  the  same.  A 
good  school,  even  though  the  distance  be  considerable,  is  infinitely 
more  important  than  the  immediate  neighborhood  of  a  poor  school. 
These  small  districts  are  tenacious  of  existence,  and  the  only 
means  by  which  they  can  be  destroyed  is  for  the  towns  to  assume 
exclusive  jurisdiction,  including  the  burden  of  the  houses,  and 
then,  from  time  to  time,  as  occasions  arise,  pass  judgment  upon 
the  expediency  of  continuing  schools  for  the  accommodation  of 
a  small  number  of  persons  who  may  often  enjoy  better  educational 
advantages  elsewhere.  And  in  behalf  of  weak  districts,  whose 
pecuniary  means  are  inadequate  to  the  erection  of  suitable  school- 
houses,  I  appeal  to  the  towns,  and  ask  them  to  reassume  a  burden 
which  they  ought  never  to  have  thrown  off.  To  the  town  the 
erection  of  a  school-house  is  usually  a  small  matter ;  to  a  weak 
district  it  is  often  a  burden  far  greater  than  all  its  other  public 
contributions  combined. 

"The  district  system  is  an  obstacle  to  the  establishment  of 
graded  schools.  There  are  many  villages,  in  towns  where  the 
district  system  exists,  that  are  divided  into  districts,  which,  if 
united,  would  furnish  pupils  for  a  school  of  two,  three,  or  four 
departments.  In  all  these  cases  there  is  great  waste  of  money  and 
of  teaching  force.  The  object  of  our  school  system  is  to  get  a 
competent  teacher  into  every  school ;  but  the  district  and  the 


256  APPENDIX. 

prudential  committee  systems  are  the  best  security  which  the 
public  can  take  that  that  object  shall  never  be  attained.  Admit 
that  all  the  inhabitants  of  a  district  are  disposed  to  do  what  is 
right  and  proper,  and  what  are  the  chances  of  success  ?  Rotation 
in  office  is  the  law  of  their  public  action.  This  is  often  a  necessity. 
Each  citizen  feels  the  burden  of  the  duties,  and  he  therefore  claims 
that  others  shall  bear  their  share.  Often  there  is  a  public  senti- 
ment which  at  once  demands  for  and  concedes  to  every  man  the 
right  to  hold  the  office  in  turn.  In  either  case  the  one  all-essential 
requisite  of  experience  is  wanting.  And  though  the  prudential 
committee  may  be  a  good  citizen,  a  good  farmer,  a  good  mechanic, 
or  a  professional  man  in  regular  standing,  he  yet  lacks  knowledge 
of  the  business  which  he  is  to  transact.  His  acquaintance  with 
teachers  also  is  limited  ;  and  he  finds,  moreover,  that  the  towns  in 
which  the  prudential  system  does  not  exist,  having  always  a  com- 
mittee competent  to  make  contracts  for  a  year  in  advance,  have 
secured  the  services  of  the  most  competent  persons..  Thus,  by  the 
unnecessary  multiplication  of  districts  and  schools  in  the  sparsely 
peopled  towns,  the  small  number  of  pupils  in  each  school,  the  lack 
of  experience  in  prudential  committees,  and,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  existence  of  superior  schools,  the  payment  of  higher  wages, 
the  larger  experience  of  committees  where  the  municipal  system 
exists,  there  has  arisen  a  difference  between  the  towns  of  the  Com- 
monwealth which  admits  of  no  other  explanation  than  that  sug- 
gested in  this  report.  Nor  ought  the  statement  of  the  fact  to  be 
omitted,  that  the  course  pursued  occasionally,  where  the  district 
system  exists,  is  open  to  the  gravest  objections.  District  meetings 
are  not  generally  attended  by  even  a  majority  of  the  voters.  It 
therefore  happens  that  it  is  possible  for  a  minority  to  elect  the 
officers  and  control  the  policy  of  the  district.  Hence  it  is  true  of 
nearly  every  town,  that  once  at  least  in  its  history,  the  organization 
of  a  district  has  been  seized  by  a  small  number  of  men  who  enter- 
tained schemes  inconsistent  with  the  welfare  of  the  schools.  As- 
sembled by  concert,  in  the  shades  of  evening,  in  a  dimly  lighted 
house,  they  have  proceeded,  without  serious  opposition,  to  consum- 
mate their  schemes  ;  and  a  prudential  committee,  in  their  interest, 
has  been  elected,  who  at  once  makes  a  contract  with  a  relative, 
friend,  or  favorite,  without  regard  to  the  intellectual  or  moral  wel- 
fare of  the  children  who  are  to  be  members  of  the  school. 

"  Nor,  under  such  circumstances,  is  it  often  in  the  province  of 
the  superintending  committee  to  resist  the  scheme,  or  to  redress 
the  grievance.  These  evils  come  from  the  exceptional  and  anti- 
republican  character  of  our  school  districts.  There  is  no  other 
department  of  government  in  the  Commonwealth,  or  under  its 
authority,  in  which  it  is  possible  for  a  single  person,  acting  in  the 
name  of  the  people,  to  proceed  without  consultation,  without 
deliberation,  without  agreement,  and  bind  his  constituency  in 


APPENDIX.  257 

matters  affecting  their  nearest  rights  and  dearest  privileges,  and 
all  without  regard  to  any  influence  or  opinion  but  suohTas  pro- 
ceeds from  his  own  whims,  passions,  prejudices,  or  errors. 

"  Nor  can  it  be  assumed  that  the  district  system  is,  even  in  the 
least  degree,  a  promoter  of  popular  liberty.  It  does  nothing  for 
education  that  might  not  be  better  done  by  other  agencies ;  and, 
as  a  system,  it  exerts  no  influence,  not  even  in  the  most  remote 
degree,  over  the  civil  or  political  fortunes  of  the  people.  Ex- 
perience is  a  great  teacher,  and  neither  the  district  syslem  nor  any 
system  analogous  to  it,  exists  in  the  larger  number  of  American 
States,  and  yet  popular  liberty  is  not  confined  to  Massachusetts. 
Moreover,  at  least  half  of  the  people  of  the  State  have  voluntarily 
abandoned  the  district  system,  and  are  not  aware  of  any  loss  of 
liberty. 

"  Nor  is  it  true  that  more  interest  in  schools  is  manifested  where 
the  district  system  exists,  but  the  greater  interest  is  observed  where 
good  schools  are  found.  The  quality  of  the  schools  and  the  interest 
of  the  people  act  and  react  upon  each  other.  A  generous  and  in- 
telligent public  interest  renders  the  establishment  of  good  schools 
necessary  and  easy,  and  good  schools  are  calculated  to  widen, 
strengthen,  and  deepen  the  interest  of  the  people.  Therefore  it  is 
absurd  in  reasoning,  and  false  in  history,  to  assume  that  a  system 
under  which  poor  schools  are  the  rule,  and  good  ones  the  excep- 
tion, is  adapted  to  increase  the  interest  of  the  people  in  learning, 
or  in  the  institutions  thereof. 

"In  concluding  this  part  of  my  report,  I  earnestly  invite  the 
inhabitants  of  the  towns  where  the  district  system  still  exists,  to 
make  faithful  trial  of  the  municipal  system  for  the  period  of  two 
or  three  years.  And  be  it  everywhere  understood,  that  the  aboli- 
tion of  the  district  system,  whether  by  a  law  of  the  State,  or  the 
action  of  the  towns  themselves,  works  no  concentration  of  power 
in  the  hands  of  any  body  outside  of  the  respective  municipalities 
interested.  The  legislature  takes  nothing,  the  Board  of  Education 
takes  nothing,  but  the  towns  reclaim  and  exercise  certain  authori- 
ties, and  perform  certain  duties,  primarily,  originally,  and  always 
their  own,  until  they  saw  tit  to  transfer  them  temporarily  and  for 
certain  purposes,  to  the  districts,  whose  existence  even  was  due  to 
and  always  dependent  upon  the  action  of  the  towns.  The  re- 
assumption  of  these  duties  and  authorities  is  entirely  consistent 
with  the  original  policy  of  the  Commonwealth,  which  regarded 
the  towns  as  the  responsible  managers  of  the  common  schools. 
Nor  can  there  be  any  safer  depository  of  this  power.  If  anywhere 
under  the  canopy  of  heaven,  and  among  men,  there  is  a  perfect 
democracy,  it  is  in  a  New  England,  a  Massachusetts  town  meeting. 
There,  in  the  light  of  day,  and  in  the  presence  of  the  world,  where 
the  power  of  each  man,  without  regard  to  social,  sectarian,  pecu- 
niary, or  industrial  distinctions,  is  equal  to  that  of  any  other  man, 

17 


258  .  APPENDIX. 

the  people  proceed  to  legislate  upon  all  their  municipal  concerns. 
And  is  there  one  of  higher  moment  than  the  management  of  their 
public  schools  ?  And  is  there  danger  to  popular  liberty  when  the 
power  to  take  the  initiative  in  the  selection  of  a  teacher  is  trans- 
ferred from  the  evening  meeting  of  a  minority  of  a  school  district, 
to  the  inhabitants  of  a  whole  town,  assembled  in  the  light  of  day 
to  legislate  upon  all  matters  of  local  and  municipal  importance  ? 

"ft  is  a  principle  in  our  government,  that  whoever  contributes 
to  the  public  burdens  has  a  right  to  be  heard  by  himself,  or  by  his 
representative,  in  the  expenditure  of  the  public  money ;  and  it 
therefore  follows  that  as  long  as  the  schools  of  a  town  are  supported 
by  the  taxation  of  all  its  citizens,  each  citizen  has  a  right  to  a 
voice  in  the  expenditure  of  money  for  educational  purposes.  This 
voice  must  be  heard  in  the  choice  of  a  committee  authorized  to 
select  the  teachers,  or  it  cannot  be  heard  at  all.  The  superintend- 
ing committees  are  chosen  by  the  people,  one-third  each  year,  and 
therefore  there  is  annually  an  opportunity  for  the  expression  of 
public  sentiment.  Under  the  municipal  system  the  entire  respon- 
sibility is  upon  the  committee,  and  under  the  pressure  of  this  re- 
sponsibility, with  a  large  and  constantly  enlarging  experience, 
there  can  be  but  little  doubt  of  their  disposition  or  their  ability  to 
meet  every  reasonable  expectation.  Led  to  retain  those  teachers 
who  have  succeeded,  and  forced  to  put  aside  those  who  are  com- 
paratively incompetent,  the  standard  of  qualifications  would  be 
gradually  elevated,  and  the  schools  proportionately  improved. 

"  I  have  been  thus  earnest  and  minute  in  this  exposition  of  the 
district  system,  in  the  hope  that  the  inhabitants  of  those  towns 
where  it  still  exists  may  be  led  to  make  a  trial  of  the  municipal 
system,  which,  I  am  persuaded,  will  render  their  schools  at  once 
more  valuable  and  more  economical.  It  is  practicable  for  many, 
even  of  the  smaller  towns,  to  consolidate  their  most  populous  dis- 
tricts, establish  graded  schools  with  two  or  three  departments,  the 
higher  of  which  shall  furnish  training  equivalent  to  that  usually 
given  in  good  English  High-Schools,  without  much  addition  to 
their  present  appropriations." 

Let  us  now  see  if  we  can  gather  up  some  of  the  results  that 
would  grow  out  of  this  change  which  is  advocated. 

1.  It  would  secure  just  as  many  schools  as  the  necessities  of  the 
community  demand,  each  being  an  integral  part  of  one  central 
organization,  and  adapted  to  the  wants  of  each  individual  com- 
munity. 

2.  It  would  dispense  with  a  large  number  of  school  officers. 

3.  It  would  establish  a  uniform  rate  of  taxation. 


APPENDIX.  259 

4.  It  would  furnish  more  uniform  and  equal  advantages  and 
privileges  to  every  citizen. 

5.  It  would  allow  the  child  to  attend  school  where  his  own  in- 
terests would  be  best  conserved,  with  no  restraint  save  what  the 
general  interests  might  require. 

6.  It  would  prevent  strife  about  district  lines.  , 

7.  It  would  diminish  the  aggregate  expenditure  for  schools. 

8.  It  would  secure  a  more  efficient  system  of  school  inspection 
and  supervision. 

9.  It  would  secure  permanency  of  supervision. 

10.  It  would  secure  greater  permanency  of  teachers. 

11.  It  would  secure  a  better  class  of  teachers. 

12.  It  would  secure  better  compensation  to  competent  teachers, 
and  less  employment  for  incompetent  ones. 

13.  It  will  secure  better  school-houses. 

14.  It  will  secure  greater  facilities  to  teachers  for  reference  and 
illustration. 

15.  It  will  enable  towns  to  establish  graded  schools. 

16.  It  will  secure  uniformity  of  text-books  in  the  same  town. 

17.  It  will  result  in  more  uniform  methods  of  teaching. 

18.  It  will  secure  the  establishment  of  a  course  of  study,  and 
will  tend  to  keep  pupils  longer  in  school. 

19.  It   will    secure   to   the    State   department   more    reliable 
statistics. 

20.  It  will  insure  schools  in  every  district,  and  prevent  a  bare 
majority  from  depriving  a  respectable  minority  of  school  privileges. 

21.  It  will  tend  to  diminish  neighborhood  quarrels. 

22.  It  would  insure  the   employment  of  fewer  nephews  and 
nieces,  sisters  and  sisters-in-law. 

23.  It  would  insure  a  larger  aggregate  of  interest  on  the  part  of 
the  community  in  each  school. 

24.  It  would  render  possible  competitive  examinations. 

It  may  be  asked,  would  not  this  radical  change  in  our  school 
system  interfere  with  their  present  and  immediate  usefulness? 
Would  it  not  so  disorganize  and  break  up  the  system  that  the 
schools  would  be  impaired  for  some  time  to  come  ? 

I  think  not.  The  material  change  would  be  simply  the  sub- 
stitution of  a  town  board  of  school  managers  in  place  of  the 


260  APPENDIX. 

various  district  boards.  This  substitution  need  cause  no  break  in 
the  working  of  our  schools — scarcely  a  jostle.  The  prudential 
committee  would  continue  to  discharge  their  duties  until  the  elec- 
tion of  the  town  boards,  at  which  time  all  district  supervision 
would  cease ;  all  school  property  would  come  into  the  possession 
of  the  town  upon  such  conditions  as  the  statute  should  provide. 

!Nbt  a  school  need  be  closed  or  interrupted,  not  a  teacher  dis- 
charged, not  a  contract  vitiated  or  annulled.  The  educational 
machine  would  work  right  on  without  obstruction,  but  more 
smoothly  and  with  greater  efficiency,  because  of  the  greater  sim- 
plicity and  unityt  of  the  new  system,  and  its  better  supervision. 
"Without  shock,  without  confusion,  almost  without  attracting  obser- 
vation, the  change  would  be  wrought,  and  wre  should  wake  up 
some  morning  and  find  ourselves  possessed  of  a  more  compact, 
more  simple,  and  more  efficient,  though  less  expensive,  school 
organization.  One  need  scarcely  be  reminded  of  change,  save  as 
it  is  suggested  by  the  munificence  of  the  blessings  it  secures. 

It  may  be  asked  what  shall  be  done  with  the  school  property 
which  now  belongs  to  the  districts.  It  would  pass  to  the  posses- 
sion of  the  towTi,  each  district  being  credited  with  the  amount  of 
its  valuation  on  appraisal,  less  the  amount  of  indebtedness  of  said 
district.  That  is,  the  town  would  practically  purchase  the  school 
property  of  each  district  and  assume  its  indebtedness. 


CHAPTEE  II. 

VENTILATION. 

THE  following  extracts  from  the  works  of  Mr.  L.  W.  Leeds  upon 
ventilation  are  of  great  value.  The  chapter  upon  Heating  and 
Yentilation  in  this  work,  with  slight  modifications,  is  the  embodi- 
ment of  principles  which  Mr.  Leeds  so  ably  advocates.  The  modi- 
fications are  necessary  to  secure  an  apparatus  at  once  cheap  and 
adapted  to  the  wants  of  common  schools. 


VENTILATION   AND    WARMING. 

"  That  great  American  institution,  the  cast-iron  stove,  is  in  dis-  . 
grace.  It  has  been,  we  think,  unjustly  and  unmercifully  per- 
secuted. There  is  a  strenuous  effort  being  made  to  exonerate  our- 
selves from  just  censure  merited  by  our  many  sins  of  omission  and 
commission,  by  endeavoring  to  cast  the  blame  upon  this  most  faith- 
ful servant  of  almost  every  laboring  man's  home. 

"  That  great  and  successful  laborer  for  the  improvement  of 
American  homes,  A.  J.  Downing,  devoted  no  stinted  portion  of 
the  brilliant  delineations  of  his  gifted  pen  to  the  unmeasured  con- 
demnation of  this  peculiar  American  institution.  Charles  Dickens's 
fertile  brain  seems  almost  exhausted  in  gathering  up  expressive 
adjectives  of  condemnation  to  hurl  at  that  i  eternal,  accursed, 
suffocating,  red-hot  demon  of  a  stove,  so  commonly  found  in 
America.' 

"  This  Dr.  Harris  quotes  approvingly,  and  thinks  the  better 
health  of  the  foundling  hospitals  of  Paris  is  because  this  c  accursed 
stove'  is  unknown  in  those  public  institutions. 

"  Catharine  E.  Beecher,  and  an  unnumbered  host  of  other  very 
able  writers,  strive  not  to  be  outdone  in  condemning  the  poor 
object  that  they  suppose  to  be  the  great  source  and  cause  of  those 
foul-air  diseases  that  seem  to  have  increased  so  fearfully  of  late  and 
are  causing  such  devastation  in  our  modern  American  homes. 


262  APPENDIX. 

Now,  add  to  all  this  Dr.  Derby's  very  able  arguments  intended  to 
call  attention  to  the  great  harm  probably  arising  from  the  escape 
of  that  intense  poison,  carbonic  oxide,  from  burning  anthracite 
coal,  and  the  very  learned  discussions  and  experiments  of  the 
French  Academy  of  Sciences,  showing  that  the  virulent  poison 
pays  no  attention  to  the  simple,  crude  attempts  to  confine  it  by 
cast-iron,  but  passes  through  such  obstructions  at  will,  with  almost 
as  much  ease  as  a  squirrel  would  through  a  post-and-rail  fence ; 
and  after  all  this,  one  can  scarcely  perceive  what  wrill  be  the  result 
of  attempting  to  plead  its  cause,  to  advocate  the  general  or  almost 
universal  use  of  this  despised  and  persecuted  article,  the  American 
stove. 

"  But  we  will  do  it,  not  in  the  interest  of  the  stove  manufac- 
turers— for  we  have  no  friend  in  the  business,  and  the  stove  is  too 
much  in  disgrace  to  'afford  to  pay  for  its  advocacy  in  that  way — 
nor  yet  from  mere  compassion,  as  many  take  the  part  of  any  per- 
secuted object,  but  from  sincere  conviction  of  its  intrinsic  worth, 
because  it  is  our  belief  that  its  universal  use,  if  used  properly — not 
abused — would  be  of  inestimable  value  to  the  American  people. 
We  believe  that  they  are  of  much  more  value  to  us  than  all  the 
gold  mines  of  California  and  Nevada.  The  value  of  the  shipping 
that  sails  from  our  ports  and  dots  the  ocean  in  every  clime  is  but 
a  drop  in  the  bucket  compared  with  the  value  to  us  of  the  proper 
use  of  our  American  stoves.  Now,  we  will  endeavor  to  give  our 
reasons  for  entertaining  an  opinion  so  singular  and  unpopular. 

"Accepting  as  a  truth  that  saying  of  the  great  Dr.  Franklin, 
that  'Public  Health  is  Public  Wealth,'  and  which  an  eminent 
hygienist  of  England  lately  said  should  be  inscribed  in  letters  of 
gold  over  every  school-house  and  public  building  throughout  the 
land,  it  becomes  a  question  of  the  gravest  importance  as  to  how  the 
best  conditions  of  public  health  can  be  obtained. 

"  We  must  not  take  a  casual  and  superficial  glance  only  at  a  few 
of  the  prominent  members  of  society,  who  by  their  wealth  and 
position  may  be  able  to  attract  more  attention  from  the  public 
than  a  whole  factory  full  of  men  and  women  who  labor  from  seven 
in  the  morning  until  six  at  night ;  because  these  wealthy  men,  if 
they  lose  an  hour,  or  a  day,  or  even  a  month,  by  sickness,  have  no 
'fear  of  losing  their  situations  and  the  entire  support  of  a  dependent 
family.  But  it  is  the  men  and  women  upon  whose  strong  muscles 
the  country  is  dependent  for  all  its  manual  labor  whose  health 
must  be  looked  after  and  preserved — it  is  the  health  of  these  that 
forms  the  great  wealth  of  a  nation. 

"  Now,  one  of  the  great  fundamental  conditions  of  our  existence 
is,  that  we  maintain  a  uniform  temperature  of  our  body,  the  stand- 
ard of  which  is  commonly  much  above  that  of  the  surrounding 
atmosphere ;  and  this  must  be  secured  at  all  times,  or  existence 
itself  ceases.  Upon  the  manner  of  supplying  this  artin'cal  heat, 


APPENDIX.  263 

and  the  supply  of  fresh  air  which  more  or  less  accompanies  it, 
depend  the  health,  wealth,  prosperity,  and  happiness  of  the  nation 
on  one  hand,  and  the  sickness,  poverty,  and  wretchedness  of  it  on 
the  other.  In  the  early  settlement  of  a  country,  when  wood  is 
very  abundant,  the  open  wood-fire  is  not  only  the  cheapest  and 
simplest  form  of  obtaining  the  required  artificial  heat,  but  it  is  in 
many  respects  the  most  advantageous  to  health  of  any  known 
means.  But  in  large  cities  and  thickly-settled  countries,  wood  is 
too  expensive  for  ordinary  use  for.  a  large  majority  of  the  people — 
and  the  wealthy  even  neglect  to  use  wood-fires,  from  ignorance, 
propably,  of  their  real  sanitary  value.  Fires  of  coal  in  open  grates 
are  the  next  most  simple  arrangement,  and  although  not  without 
their  inconveniences,  yet  they  have  some  excellent  sanitary  quali- 
ties ;  and  it  is  our  opinion  it  would  add  greatly  to  the  health  and 
happiness  of  many  families,  even  in  moderate  circumstances,  to 
have  an  open  fire  to  sit  by,  should  they  have  to  substitute  an  old- 
fashioned  rag-carpet  to  cover  the  floor  instead  of  a  more  expensive 
one. 

"  But  notwithstanding  the  many  advantages  of  the  open  fires  of 
wood  and  coal,  yet  they  are  expensive,  as  they  consume  from 
three  to  five  times  as  much  coal  to  produce  the  same  amount 
of  heat  in  a  room  as  can  b'e  produced  by  a  good  stove.  The 
question  is  not  so  much,  Shall  the  laboring  classes  use  stoves, 
or  shall  they  have  open  fires?  as  it  is,  Shall  they  have  stoves, 
or  shall  they  go  without  artificial  heat  altogether?  If  Charles 
Dickens  were  to  visit  the  forty  thousand  paupers  said  to  dwell 
in  one  portion  only  of  London,  he  would  not,  to  be  sure,  find 
them  crowded  around  that  'peculiar  American  institution,'  the 
'infernal  red-hot  stove;'  but,  far  worse,  he  would  find  them 
crowded  together  in  some  cold,  damp,  chilly  room,  perhaps  a 
few  hovering  over  same  smoking  embers,  but  the  majority  hud- 
dled together  in  a  corner,  covered  by  all  the  old  rags  they  had 
left  after  calking  all  the  cracks  of  the  doors  and  windows,  to 
keep  out,  if  possible,  any  breath  of  air. 

"  Heat  is  a  great  and  valuable  sanitary  agent,  and  if  it  can  be 
made  available  more  cheaply  by  the  use  of  the  stove  than  in  any 
other  way,  it  is  the  duty  of  the  sanitarian  to  teach  the  people  how 
to  use  that,  and  not  to  spend  his  time  in  abusing  it  simply  for  the 
faults  resulting  from  its  misuse.  The  want  of  a  proper  supply  of 
fresh  air  when  heating  by  the  stove  is  one  great  cause  of  this  hue  and 
cry  against  the  poor  stove.  It  does,  of  course,  allow  a  small  room 
to  be  shut  up  almost  air-tight,  and  if  crowded  with  filthy  people, 
with  a  kerosene  lamp  smoking  in  th,e  room,  there  is  no  doubt  what- 
ever that  a  very  foul  and  offensive  atmosphere  may  be  thus  manu- 
factured. A  bright,  open  fire  scarcely  allows  of  this  abuse.  But 
it  is  the  simplest  thing  in  the  world  to  remedy  all  this,  and  it  can 
be  done  with  the  stove  much  cheaper,  and  frequently  with  more 


264  APPENDIX. 

satisfaction,  than  with  the  open  fire.  All  that  is  required  is  to 
bring  in  a  good  supply  of  fresh  air  from  out  of  doors,  and  discharge 
it  on  the  top  of  the  stove. 

"  But  in  attempting  to  do  this  it  is  quite  strange  how  many  very 
intelligent  persons  will  commit  the  fatal  error  of  supposing  that  all 
that  is  necessary  is  to  cut  a  hole  through  the  floor,  and  the  fresh  air 
will  flow  up  around  the  stove  itself,  instead  of  which  it  will  simply 
flow  out  over  the  floor,  being  heavier  than  the  air  in  the  room.  It 
must  always  be  conducted  to,  and  discharged  on  top  of  the  stove, 
and  then  it  simply  falls  down  and  mingles  with  the  heated  air 
arising  around  the  stove.  This  introduction  of  fresh  air  around 
the  stove  was  very  fully  explained  by  Dr.  Franklin  and  most 
enthusiastically  advocated  by  him,  and  he  introduced  it  largely 
during  his  lifetime  through  the  world-renowned  '  Franklin  stove  ;' 
yet  owing  to  the  stupidity,  or  ignorance,  or  whatever  we  must  call 
it,  of  the  people  as  to  the  value  of  or  necessity  for  fresh  air,  this 
valuable  feature  of  this  celebrated  stove — in  fact,  all  the  Franklin 
— was  omitted,  and  the  simple  skeleton,  without  the  spirit,  handed 
down  with  his  name. 

"  We  have  taken  much  pains  to  inquire  of  recent  prominent 
writers  who  have  urged  the  use  of  the  '  Franklin  stove'  if  they 
knew  what  a  '  Franklin  stove'  was  ?  They  are  apt  to  be  quite  in- 
dignant at  the  suspicion  of  such  ignorance ;  but  on  inquiring  how 
they  propose  supplying  the  fresh,  external  air  to  their  stove,  they 
want  to  know  what  is  meant.  We  have  found  scarcely  a  single 
writer  thus  questioned  who  had  the  correct  idea  of  a  Franklin 
stove.  There  was  a  large  number  of  these  Franklin  or  ventilating- 
stoves  used  during  the  war,  and  when,  to  the  liberal  supply  of 
fresh  air  was  added  an  abundant  supply  of  moisture,  an  artificial 
atmosphere  was  produced  which  for  genial  warmth,  freshness,  and 
purity  could  scarcely  be  excelled  by  any  artificial  means  of  heating 
now  known.  The  success  of  this  manner  of  warming  the  hos- 
pitals during  our  late  war  has  given  a  great  impetus  to  the  reiii- 
troduction  of  Franklin  stoves.  Their  introduction  into  the 
hospitals  and  barracks  of  England  is  urged  by  the  surgeons  and 
inspectors.  The  Sanitary  Committee  of  the  Paris  Exposition 
spoke  in  the  highest  terms  of  this  system  of  heating  and  ventila- 
tion as  adopted  in  the  United  States. 

"  Owing  to  the  necessity  in  schools  of  the  children  sitting  very 
close  to  the  stove,  most  of  those  made  for  such  positions  are 
entirely  surrounded  by  the  casing,  thus  forming  an  air-chamber 
around  the  whole  stove.  This  greatly  obstructs  that  portion  of 
the  heat  that  gives  the  great  superiority  to  o^pen  fires  and  stoves 
over  hot-air  furnaces.  We  mean  the  direct  radiation.  The  effects 
of  heating  by  direct  radiation  and  by  currents  of  circulating 
warmed  air  are  very  different.  You  may  be  sitting  in  front  of  an 
open  fire  from  which  the  rays  of  heat  will  be  thrown  out  so  strong 


APPENDIX.  265 

that  you  will  be  kept  comfortably  warm,  and  at  the  same  time 
there'  may  be  a  current  of  air  surrounding  you,  and  from  which 
you  are  breathing,  which  passes  by  you  into  the  fire  at  a  tempera- 
ture many  degrees  below  that  indicated  by  the  thermometer. 

•"  On  the  contrary,  in  a  room  heated  exclusively  by  hot-air  cur- 
rents you  are  surrounded  by  and  breathing  air  heated  hotter  than 
indicated  by  the  thermometer;  because  the  cold  walls  and  cold 
windows  are  constantly  absorbing  the  heat  of  the  solid  bodies  in 
the  room  by  radiation. 

"  When  we  consider  how  much  more  active  and  vigorous  the 
system  is  when  breathing  the  cold,  bracing  air  of  winter  than 
when  breathing  the  w^arm  debilitating  air  of  summer,  we  can 
readily  understand  how  much  more  wholesome  would  be  an  at- 
mosphere in  which  a  large  proportion  of  heat  would  oe  derived 
from  the  direct  radiation  of  a  hot  stove  or  open  fire,  than  where 
all  the  air  was  vitiated  by  overheating  for  the  purpose  of  securing 
the  required  warmth  in  that  way. 

"  The  loud  and  universal  complaints  against  all  hot-air  furnaces 
have  fully  demonstrated  the  entire  impossibility  of  producing  a 
comfortable  and  satisfactory  atmosphere  in  a  room  by  that  means 
only.  With  the  open  fire,  the  highly  heated  and  vitiated  air  is 
carried  directly  up  the  chimney.  Much  heat  is  thus  wasted,  of 
course ;  but  this  may  be  far  better  than  the  wasting  of  the  health 
by  attempting  to  breathe  it.  In  heating  by  the  stove,  the  air  that 
comes  in  contact  with  the  hot  sides,  and  is  thus  heated  and  conse- 
quently vitiated,  is  frequently  retained  in  the  room ;  this  makes  a 
stove-heated  room  more  unpleasant  than  when  warmed  by  the 
open  fire.  But  suppose  there  should  be  sufficient  ventilation  to 
carry  out  of  the  room  directly  this  warmed  and  vitiated  air,  and 
depend  mostly  upon  the  radiation  from  the  stove  for  heating,  that 
would  be  still  much  cheaper  than  the  open  fire,  and  far  more 
wholesome  than  the  heat  from  a  miserable  hot-air  furnace. 

"  To  continue  our  comments  still  further  upon  this  topic,  we 
may  remark  that  the  radiation  from  the  hot-air  stove  would  act  in 
all  directions  equally — one  must  remember  the  rays  of  heat  are 
thrown  as  much  to  the  floor  as  to  the  ceiling ;  it  is  only  the  cur- 
rents of  w^armed  and  vitiated  air  that  rush  to  the  ceiling,  while  the 
currents  of  cold,  and  generally  purer,  air  flow  along  the  floor. 
But  if  the  pure  external  air  is  brought  in  on  top  of  the  hot  stove 
and  falls  over  it,  the  radiation  from  the  stove  is  sufficient  to  keep 
up  an  equal  temperature  over  the  whole  room ;  and  if  the  supply 
of  air  by  the  stove  is  sufficient  to  fill  the  room  and  allow  for  what 
is  carried  off  for  ventilation,  there  will  be  no  cold  air  sucking  in 
under  the  door  and  around  the  windows,  which  creates  those  cold, 
unpleasant  draughts  so  mnch  complained  of.  Uow  a  word  about 
that  dreadful  poison,  'carbonic  oxide/  that  passes  through  the 
iron  stove  so  easily.  It  is  our  belief  that  many  hundreds  and 


266  APPENDIX 

thousands  die  every  year  from  the  escape  of  this  gas ;  but  prac- 
tically the  amount  that  escapes  through  the  solid  iron  is  probably 
a  very  small  fraction  compared  with  what  escapes,  or  rather  is 
expelled,  through  the  open  joints  of  stoves  and  furnaces,  or  from 
open  fires,  by  badly  constructed  flues.  Here  is  the  great  trouble 
with  most  of  our  heating  arrangements.  We  believe  that  poorly 
constructed  and  entirely  choked  flues  are  the  cause  of  more  sick- 
ness and  deaths  in  the  United  States  than  cholera,  yellow  fever, 
and  small-pox  combined.  Few  persons  who  have  not  made  a 
general  investigation  of  this  subject  have  any  conception  of  the 
very  large  number  of  flues  in  daily  use  that  are  either  entirely 
choked  or  totally  inadequate  to  carry  off  the  gases  and  smoke  from 
the  fires  which  they  are  intended  thus  to  relieve  ;  hence  the  very 
frequent  annoyance  from  gas  and  smoke  daily  met  with." 

VENTILATION   AND   WARMING. 

"  A  kind  of  chronic  confusion  and  bewilderment  seems  to  have 
taken  possession  of  the  public  mind  in  regard  to  ventilation.  The 
disappointment  consequent  upon  the  failure  to  realize  the  wonder- 
ful results  anticipated  by  the  sanguine  inventors  of  many  new  con- 
trivances for  ventilation,  seems  to  have  cooled  the  ardor  of  not  a 
few  of  the  young  and  enthusiastic  advocates  of  that  science.  Older 
and  more  indifferent  ones  have  quietly  closed  up  all  openings  that 
produced  so  many  draughts,  and  seemed  to  have  supposed,  like  the 
bird  of  the  desert,  that  by  hiding  their  eyes  to  their  great  enemy, 
they  could  thus  escape  his  attacks.  The  results  are  related  in 
every  morning' s  paper  in  the  record  of  ,the  large  number  of  deaths 
resulting  from  foul  air.  There  have  been  so  many  failures  in  what 
might  be  termed  scientific  ventilation,  or  special  schemes  and  con- 
trivances of  theoretical  men,  that  any  modest,  industrious  man, 
though  of  good  ordinary  intelligence,  shrinks  from  a  proposition  to ' 
investigate  the  mysteries  of  this  subject  with  as  genuine  a  shudder 
as  he  would  from  a  request  to  explain  the  wonders  of  spirit-rap- 
ping. 

"  Now,  the  first  thing  that  presents  itself  to  the  utilitarian  mind, 
when  asked  to  step  out  of  or  beyond  the  regular  routine  of  daily 
life,  is,  "  Will  it  pay,  or  is  it  necessary  ?"  then,  "  How  can  it  be 
done,  and  what  will  it  cost  ?"  That  there  is  need  of  some  improve- 
ment in  the  ventilation  of  most  of  our  buildings  is  now  very 
generally  acknowledged  ;  but  a  willingness  to  spend  the  necessary 
money  to  secure  good  results,  and  a  belief  that  such  expenditure 
will  pay,  are  still  generally  wanting.  There  seems  to  be  a  prevail- 
ing belief  that  what  is  needed  is  some  new  invention  that  is  going 
to  supply  all  the  time,  summer  and  winter,  pure  fresh  air,  without 
any  further  thought  in  regard  to  the  matter.  This  is  a  very  erro- 


APPENDIX.  267 

neons  supposition.  It  is  also  a  very  unfortunate  one,  because, 
while  it  is  impossible  that  it  should  ever  be  realized,  its  const-ant 
anticipation  prevents  that  care  and  attention  to  the  proper  use  of 
the  appliances  for  ventilation  which  are  accessible  to  all.  If,  there- 
fore, the  public  were  to  cease  altogether  from  looking  for  new  in- 
ventions, and  wasting  money  on  them,  and  each  one  were  to  devote 
his  whole  attention  to  making  the  best  use  of  whatever  he  had  for 
ventilation  and  warming,  real  progress  would  soon  be  made  on  a 
good  and  substantial  foundation.  This  popular  longing  for  new 
things  has  taught  many  utterly  to  despise  all  arrangements  hereto- 
fore in  use,  because,  as  they  are  expecting  that  the  true  theory  of 
ventilation  is  yet  to  be  discovered,  and  that  it  will  be  entirely 
different  from  anything  they  have  ever  thought  of,  therefore,  what- 
ever they  have  seen  before  must  necessarily  be  good  for  nothing. 
Instead  of  this,  to-day,  all  the  essential  means  of  ventilation  and 
warming  likely  to  be  developed  for  a  long  time  to  come  are  really 
at  hand.  Improvements  will  consist  in  increased  knowledge  as  to 
the  use  of  them  to  the  best  advantage. 

"  While  it  is  very  true  that  there  are  many  exceedingly  uncom- 
fortable buildings,  and  that  the  atmosphere  in  most  modern  houses 
and  public  buildings  is  very  unwholesome,  yet  it  is  equally  true 
that  there  are,  even  at  the  present  time,  many  well-ventilated  and 
well-warmed  buildings.  One  of  the  first  things  to  learn  is  to  be 
able  to  tell  when  a  building  is  properly  ventilated  and  warmed, 
and  when  it  is  not.  The  perfection  of  ventilation  consists  in  the 
unconscious  satisfaction  of  all  the  inmates — a  condition  in  which 
they  think  nothing  about  it.  The  contrary,  however — that  is  to 
say,  a  constant  complaining  of  a  want  of  proper  ventilation  in  a 
public  room — by  no  means  proves  that  those  complaints  are  just. 
One  often  finds  attending  the  same  services  of  a  Sabbath,  persons 
of  exceedingly  different  habits  and  constitutions.  Not  unfrequently 
a  young  lady  may  be  observed  entering  with  glowing  countenance 
and  in  the  full  bloom  of  health.  Accustomed  to  be  in  the  open 
air,  taking  her  ride,  walk,  or  skating  every  day — rain  or  shine, 
sleet,  snow,  or  hail — and  accustomed  as  well  to  sleep  in  a  perfectly 
cold  room,  with  windows  open  all  winter — as  the  strong,  pure 
blood  courses  through  her  veins,  there  is  a  pleasure  and  a  delight 
in  her  very  appearance.  To  enter  a  room  at  a  temperature  of  70° 
Fahrenheit  is  to  her  oppressive ;  and  she  throws  back  her  furs, 
commences  fanning,  and  begs  the  sexton  please  give  them  a  little 
fresh  air,  or  she  will  certainly  smother.  But,  perhaps,  on  the  very 
next  seat  behind  her  may  be  seated  a  poor,  emaciated  victim 
of  foul  air — a  lawyer,  perhaps,  or  the  secretary  of  some  life  insur- 
ance company — whose  poor,  thin  blood  has  almost  ceased  to  per- 
form its  legitimate  function,  and  whose  deep  cough  and  short 
breath  but  too  plainly  indicate  his  long  abuse  of  the  great  funda- 


268  APPENDIX. 

mental  principle  of  all  "healthy  existence — an  abundant  supply  of 
pure  air.  The  very  sight  of  him  sends  a  cold,  creeping  ague  over 
you.  He  has  scarcely  taken  his  seat  when  he  buttons  up  his  coat 
and  wants  to  know  if  they  intend  to  freeze  everybody  to  death ; 
concluding  with  the  remark  that,  if  they  cannot  manage  to  keep 
the  building  warm,  he  will  have  to  quit  attending,  as  it  is  impossi- 
ble to  avoid  taking  a  severe  cold  every  time  he  ventures  there. 
This  is  the  very  common  experience  of  every  one  who  has  ever 
had  the  care  of  any  large  public  building. 

"  Now,  it  would  be  quite  difficult  so  to  warm  and  ventilate  a 
building  as  perfectly  to  satisfy  both  these  extremes.  The  great 
value  to  be  derived  from  a  thorough  personal  knowledge  of  the 
theory  and  practice  of  ventilation  is  the  ability  to  adapt  one's  self 
to  the  conditions  that  necessarily  surround  us. 

"  If  the  young  lady  directly  in  front  of  you  in  a  railroad  car  insists 
on  having  the  window  open  with  the  thermometer  at  zero,  of 
course  it  would  be  utterly  useless  to  attempt  to  explain  to  her  that  it 
is  not  necessary.  It  is,  therefore,  better  to  put  on  your  overcoat,  wrap 
your  shawl  around  your  feet,  and  endeavor  to  find  a  seat  in  front 
of  her.  Or,  if  you  have  been  so  foolish  as  to  attempt  to  deprive 
your  poor  body  of  a  good  night's  rest  by  taking  a  berth  in  a 
sleeping-car,  and  have  been  waked  up  after  half  an  hour's  restless 
sleep  just  in  the  middle  of  some  horrid  dream,  raise  your  window 
a  little  and  put  your  folded  newspaper  under  it,  and  draw  the 
blinds  down  over  it  to  prevent  its  being  discovered  by  the  attend- 
ant. Then,  by  putting  your  face  close  to  the  opening,  even  if  it 
is  small,  you  will  have  sufficient  pure  air  to  give  you  a  good  night's 
rest,  perhaps,  if  not  too  much  disturbed  by  the  awful  snoring  and 
growling  of  your  fellow-passengers,  tossing  about  in  the  foul  at- 
mosphere of  other  parts  of  the  car.  Thus,  there  are  many  very 
simple  ways  of  securing  good  ventilation,  no  matter  how  unfavor- 
able the  surrounding  conditions  may  be.  But  it  is  entirely  im- 
possible— this  word  impossible  should  be  used  with  caution — that 
one  should  be  always  surrounded  with  conditions  not  admitting  of 
the  advantageous  use  of  a  little  correct  knowledge  of  the  general 
principles  of  ventilation  and  warming. 

"  Perhaps  the  very  best  patent  th?t  could  be  obtained  for  anything 
connected  with  this  subject  w^iild  be  the  application  of  a  little 
common  sense  to  the  use  o^  our  ordinary  contrivances.  This  cer- 
tainly would  be  sufficicxitly  novel  to  secure  the  granting  of  the 
patent  at  once.  O.:e  of  the  very  common  causes  of  failure  with 
many  of  the  contrivances  for  ventilation,  is  the  neglect  of  those 
adopting  them  to  take  a  full,  complete,  and  comprehensive  view 
of  all  the  circumstances  surrounding  them.  They  fail  to  compre- 
hend the  force  and  power  of  'the  ever- varying  currents  of  the 
external  atmosphere.  The  pressure  of  a  strong  wind  amounts  to 


APPENDIX.  269 

many  tons  on  the  side  of  an  ordinary  building.  Now,  the  whole 
of  this  pressure  may  be  exerted  one  moment,  and  almost  entirely 
withdrawn  the  very  next.  Or,  it  may  be  pressing  on  one  side  of 
the  building  one  hour,  creating  a  partial  vacuum  on  the  other,  and 
the  next  hour  both  the  pressure  and  vacuum  may  be  reversed. 
These  are  great  controlling  conditions ;  and  yet  one  sees,  daily  and 
almost  hourly,  in  the  offices  and  rooms  of  persons  of  good  ordinary 
intelligence,  a  lamp  or  a  gas-light  burning  in  one  corner  of  a  large 
apartment,  which,  it  is  confidently  expected,  will  thoroughly  ven- 
tilate the  whole  building.  Or,  perhaps,  a  little  toy- wheel,  at  times 
whirling  around  in  the  window-pane,  and  at  other  times  motion- 
less, is  designed  to  answer  the  same  purpose.  The  little  woolly 
lap-dog,  as  he  bellows  out  at  the  express-train  with  all  the  energy 
and  force  of  his  little  lungs,  scarcely  presents  a  more  ludicrous 
waste  and  misapplication  of  power.  One  must  first  learn  to  com- 
prehend these  great  controlling  natural  forces ;  and,  whenever  it  is 
possible,  work  with  them  instead  of  attempting  to  oppose  them. 
It  will  be  seen  at  a  glance,  however,  that  all  contrivances  for  ven- 
tilation must  necessarily  be  varied  frequently,  owing  to  the  con- 
stantly altering  conditions  with  which  one  is  surrounded.  An  open 
window  is  very  agreeable  on  a  warm  spring  morning,  but  quite 
the  contrary  when  admitting  the  keen,  piercing  wind  of  a  cold 
winter's  day.  Windows  and  doors  are  our  great  natural  ventila- 
tors ;  and  many  persons,  in  speaking  of  ventilation,  overlook  the 
important  part  they  really  play  in  the  ventilation  of  buildings. 
Occupants  exercise  considerable  thought  and  care  in  opening  and 
closing  these  according  to  the  ever-shifting  conditions  of  the  at- 
mosphere, and  ought  to  exercise  the  same  intelligence  in  regulating 
other  contrivances  for  ventilation.  The  difficulty  is,  that  many 
persons  seem  to  be  anticipating  the  discovery  of  some  system  of 
ventilation  that  will  require  no  thought  and  no  intelligence  to 
regulate.  When  they  can  control  the  external  temperature,  and 
keep  it  forever  at  one  uniform  standard,  and  cause  the  wind  to 
blow  forever  with  the  same  force  and  in  one  direction,  this  may  be 
done,  but  not  before. 

"  Important  as  windows  and  doors  are  for  general  ventilation,  yet, 
in  every  building,  and  in  almost  every  room,  it  is  very  desirable  to 
have  some  other  provision  for  ventilation — some  contrivance  that 
may  be  frequently  and  easily  regulated  according  to  the  veering 
of  the  wind  and  the  alteration  of  temperature,  as  well  as  according 
to  the  relative  temperature  of  the  external  atmosphere  and  that 
of  the  room. 

"  When  the  public  shall  have  comprehended  that  one  breathes 
more  than  ten  times  the  number  of  pounds  of  air  that  one  eats  of 
food,  and  that  it  is  of  ten  times  the  importance  to  have  pure  air 
than  it  is  to  have  pure  food ;  and  further,  when  the  public  shall 


270  APPENDIX. 

have  determined  to  make  a  liberal  expenditure  of  time,  money, 
and  thought  to  procure  this  constant  supply  of  pure  air,  then  "it 
will  be  in  a  condition  to  examine  critically  the  many  contrivances 
offered  for  that  purpose,  and  will  probably  soon  learn  that  there  has 
been  an  exceedingly  small  amount  of  common  sense  applied  to  the 
accomplishment  of  the  object  aimed  at.  At  the  same  time,  con- 
siderable valuable  ingenuity  has  been  wasted  for  want  of  taking 
an  enlarged,  clear,  and  comprehensive  view  of  the  whole  subject 
before  starting." 


SUNSHINE 

"  Sunshine,  the  great  motive  power  of  atmospheric  movements, 
is  the  motive  power  of  natural  ventilation.  It  is  also  Nature's' 
great  disinfectant ;  and  if  there  is  one  place  more  than  another  in 
which  its  influence  cannot  be  dispensed  with,  that  place  is  the 
school-room. 

"  From  the  disregard  of  sunlight — direct  sunlight — so  noticeable 
in  the  construction,  not  only  of  school-houses  but  dwellings,  it  is 
to  be  feared  that  few  persons  realize  how  soon  the  walls,  carpets, 
and  other  porous  objects  in  a  room  become  foul  by  the  absorption 
of  effete  matter  exhaled  from  the  bodies  of  the  occupants.  A  free 
circulation  of  air  is  of  great  value,  as  well  for  removing  these 
exhalations  before  they  can  be  deposited  as  for  supplying  fresh  air 
for  breathing.  But  mere  change  of  air  is  not  sufficient :  a  more 
powerful  agent  is  required.  Every  lady  knows,  unfortunately,  how 
soon  direct  •  sunlight  fades  the  bright  colors  of  her  carpets  and 
upholstery.  Too  few  appear  to  know  that  the  same  blessed  agent 
is  equally  energetic  in  dissipating  the  fever-breeding,  consumption- 
causing  air  that  pervades  and  clings  to  her  carefully-shaded  furni- 
ture. We  want  fewer  heavy  curtains  and  closed  shutters,  and 
more  sunshine  in  our  public  and  private  apartments. 

"  Many  attempts  have  been  made  to  secure  the  thorough  ventila- 
tion of  buildings  by  currents  of  air  produced  by  artificial  means, 
to  thp  entire  neglect  of  natural  ventilation ;  but  always  with  dis- 
appointment. Ventilating  engineers  are  apt  to  commence  by  cal- 
culating first  how  much  each  person  will  inhale  or  exhale  in  a 
minute,  and  then,  by  making  what  seems  to  be  a  Liberal  allowance 
for  the  contamination  of  the  surrounding  air,  endeavor  to  provide 
for  the  requisite  supply  of  pure  air.  The  results  obtained  almost 
invariably  fall  short  of  what  is  actually  required.  Especially  in 
mild  or  close  weather  do  these  artificial  arrangements  fail.  Then 
nothing  short  of  the  full  sweep  of  the  external  air  will  answer. 
For  rooms  in  which  large  numbers  of  persons  are  to  be  collected, 
it  is  a  primary  requirement  that  there  be  openings  on  every  side, 


APPENDIX.  271 . 

so  that  any  outside  currents  of  air,  from  whatever  direction,  may 
be  made  use  of. 

"  Objections  may  be  made  to  our  arrangement  of  windows  be- 
cause of  the  great  amount  of  light  that  would  enter  at  them. 
That,  of  course,  could  be  regulated  by  means  of  blinds.  The 
direction  of  the  light  that  strikes  the  pupils'  books  can  be  regulated 
in  the  same  way.  Blinds  should  be  used  on  all  the  windows,  be- 
cause they  are  far  superior  to  curtains  in  admitting  a  free  circula- 
tion of  air,  while  excluding  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun ;  and  the 
blinds  should  be  green,  because  that  is  the  color  most  agreeable  to 
the  eyes.  At  intermissions,  and  before  and  after  school,  the  blinds 
should  be  opened  to  admit  direct  sunlight,  the  purifying  effect  of 
which  is  absolutely  indispensable  in  keeping  the  school-room 
wholesome. 

"  The  only  objection  that  we  can  see  to  our  school-house  thus 
overflowed  with  sunshine  and  fresh  air,  is  that  the  children  would 
so  luxuriate  in  these  essentials  of  physical  health  and  vivacity,  that 
they  would  be  as  restless  and  mischievous  as  the  boys  and  girls  of 
an  old-fashioned  country  school  kept  in  an  over-ventilated  log- 
house.  They  would  need  a  very  different  treatment,  it  is  true, 
from  that  required  to  spur  into  activity  the  poor,  pale-faced,  auto- 
matic dolls  that  go  through  the  routine  performances  of  many  of 
our  public  schools ;  yet  we  must  confess  a  strong  liking  for  the 
spirit  of  the  country  school-boy." 


SCHOOL  MATERIAL,--PAET  i 

PUPILS'  DESKS,  SETTEES,  etc, 


PAGE 

Absolute  Requisites  for  Good  Furniture,  ....  6 

Accommodation  Desks  and  Folding  Chairs,  -  -  -  -  -      11 

Adjustable  Stand  for  Artists  and  Students,  ...  24 

American  School  Desks  and  Settees,  -  -  -  -  .  -12 

Assembly-room  Desks  and  Settees,         -  -  '    -  .  -  14 

Box  Desks,  with  Lids,  double,  -  -  .  .  -  -16 

Box  Desks,  with  Lids,  single,         -  --..-17 

Caution,  .  .  -       4 

College  Lecture-room  Settees,       ----...  22 

Combined  Desks  and  Settees,  -  -  .  -      12 

Cornell  Settee,  for  Primary  Classes,         -  ....  8 

Examination  Table,  .  .  .  -      22 

Guilford  Desk,  with  Folding  Chair,  ...  20 

Important  to  all  who  use  School  Furniture,  -  ....        4 

Independent  Desks  and  Settees,  .....  12 

Introduction,  -  .....        5 

Lecturer's  Reading  Stand,  .....  23 

New  American  Desks,  -  .  .  .  -      12 

New  American  Collegiate  Desks,  21 

New  England  Desks  and  Folding  Chairs,       -  ....      10 

New  York  Desk-Settee,  -  -  -  -  -  -  19 

Normal  and  Collegiate  Desks,  -  -  -  -      21 

Old  Style  Desks  and  Chairs,  -  -  .  .  15 

Plain  Box  Desks,  with  Lid  and  Brace,  -  -  -  .  -      20 

Popular  School  Desks  and  Settees,  -  -  -  -  -  9 

Primary  Folding  Settee,         -  .......      32 

Reading  Stands,       -  -----  23 

Settees  for  Recitation  Rooms,  Halls,  and  Sunday-Schools,  nineteen  kinds,  25-32 

Single  Desks  with  Chairs,  -  -  -  .  .  .  .  18 

Sizes  of  Desks  and  Settees,    ---.....7 

Turned  Post  Box  Desk,    -  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  21 

Wall  Desks, 18 


Important    to    all    who    Use.  Buy,  Sell,  or 
Manufacture   School  Furniture. 


IpWtr  M  "$lm  ftj)  ilmt  Qwttntt,  That  I,  AARON  H.  ALLEN, 

of  Boston,  Massachusetts,  in  consideration  of,  and  pursuant  to,  an  Indenture  made 
and  executed  on  the  Sixteenth  day  of  September,  1869,  by  me  and  J.  W.  SCHER- 
MERHORN  &  Co.,  of  the  City,  County,  and  State  of  New  York,  do  declare  that  I 
have  granted  to  them  the  sole  right  and  privilege  of  Manufacturing  and  Selling 
SCHOOL  FURNITURE,  made  according  to  Letters  Patent  of  the  United  States,  for 
Tilting  Seats  supported  by  the  Lever,  granted  to  me  on  the  5th  day  of  December, 
1854, — Re-issued  on  the  15th  day  of  January,  1861, — and  extended  seven  years  from 
the  5th  day  ot  December,  1868,  and  subject  to  the  terms  and  conditions  in  said 
Indenture  contained. 
In  witness  whereof,  I  have  hereunto  set  my  hand  and  seal,  this  Eighteenth 

day  of  September,  A.D.  1869. 

(Signed)  A.  H.  ALLEN. 

(Witnessed) 


The  undersigned  CAUTION  all  persons  against  the  use  of  infringements  of  the  above, 
flamed  Patents' — which,  we  believe,  cover  all  the  Folding-seat  School  Furniture  now  in 
use,  supported  directly  or  remotely  on  the  Lever  principle.  All  who  may  use  the  same 
without  license  from  us  are  liable  for  damages. 

"We  respectfully  solicit  the  names  of  persons  who  are  using  infringements,  without  our 
license,  and  shall  cheerfully  pay  for  such  information. 

"We  do  not  desire  to  annoy  school  officers  and  others  who  may  have  innocently  pur- 
chased violations  of  our  patents ;  and  yet  it  is  our  plain  duty  to  protect  our  rights  under 
the  patent  laws.  We  have  secured  Allen's  Opera-seat  Patents,  at  great  expense,  for 
our  own  trade  ;  and  we  must  insist  upon  our  rights. 

Suits  against  the  Cities  of  New  York  and  Brooklyn  are  now  pending,  and  preliminary 
proceedings  are  in  progress  in  several  other  cases. 

J.  W.  Schermerhorn  &  Co.,  Proprietors 
Of  Allen's  Opera-Seat  Patents, 

(As  applied  to  School  Furniture). 


INTRODUCTION. 


Too  many  of  our  schools  have  rude,  unsightly,  and  uncomfortable 
furniture;  and  yet  Americans  may  congratulate  themselves  upon 
having  their  schools  supplied  with  better  furniture  than  the  schools 
of  any  other  country.  The  school  furniture  of  Great  Britain  is  to- 
day not  superior  to  ours  a  quarter  of  a  century  ago,  and  England's 
school  furniture  is  somewhat  better  than  we  find  in  most  European 
countries. 

A  contemporary  seriously  describes  school  furniture  consisting 
of  "a  bench  with  legs  long  at  the  one  end  and  short  at  the  other. 
The  large  scholars  sat  upon  the  higher  end,  and  the  smaller  were 
graded  down  to  the  lower  end."  We  have  never  seen  any  furniture 
like  this,  and  must  confess  that  the  contemporary  dates  farther  back 
than  we  can.  We  do,  however,  distinctly  remember  the  old-fashioned 
"  bench,"  hastily  constructed  from  a  pine  slab,  fresh  '  from  the 
neighboring  saw-mill.  The  flat,  unplaned  side  was  considered  good 
enough  for  the  seats  of  the  urchins  of  those  days.  Cuttings  from 
a  sapling  were  inserted,  bracingly,  for  supports.  There  was  nothing 
to  rest  the  wearied  backs  of  the  boys  and  girls  of  that  period. 
"Writing  and  ciphering"  facilities  for  the  larger  pupils  were  made 
by  arranging  boards  slopingly  around  the  walls  of  the  house.  A 
"  slab  bench"  was  placed  under  the  edge  of  this  writing-desk,  and 
those  occupying  the  same  would  "face  to  the  wall"  when  at  work, 
and  "  face  about"  when  the  teacher  wanted  to  lecture  them,  or  display 
them  to  "  the  committee."  This  arrangement  had  its  advantages  as 
well  as  its  disadvantages.  If  active-minded  pupils  were  intent  upon 
"eating  apples,"  reading  story-books,  or  making  caricatures  of  the 
watchful  schoolmaster,  they  might  be  "caught"  by  that  individual 
approaching  quietly  from  the  rear. 

That  style  has  now  passed  away,  giving  place  to  modern  school 
furniture.  Even  our  rural  schools  are  demanding  furniture  of  the 
better  kinds.  And  our  manufacturers  of  school  material  have  been 
compelled  to  fall  out  of  the  ranks,  or  intelligently  study  the  construc- 
tion of  school  furniture  as  "a  fine  art." 


Absolute  Requisites  for  Good  School  Furniture. 


First— COMFORT. 

The  seats  and  backs  must  be  curved  to  precisely  fit  the  natural  curves  of  the 
bodies  of  the  pupils.  An  indifferently  curved  seat  is  not  enough— both  seat  and 
back  must  be  curved,  and  properly  curved. 

Second— FOLDING    SEATS. 

Pupils  must  be  able  to  take  and  leave  their  seats  without  difficulty  and  disturbance; 
the  teacher  must  know  that  he  can  call  up  every  pupil  promptly,  at  a  given  signal ; 
the  school-room  must  have  capacity  for  light  gymnastics ;  free  passages  across  the 
room  must  be  allowed,  with  ample  opportunity  for  cleaning  the  floors. 

Third— DURABILITY. 

This  quality  must  be  secured  by  the  use  of  the  best  material,  skilled  workmen, 
and  correct  construction. 

Fourth— GOOD    APPEARANCE. 

This  quality,  besides  making  the  school-room  attractive,  will  protect  the  furni- 
ture from  the  attacks  of  penknives  and  other  destructive  instruments.  Good 
appearance  is  necessary  to  aid  in  educating  taste. 

Fifth— COMFORT,  First  and  Last. 

Correct  pnysiological  principles  must  be  observed  in  the  construction  of  all 
modern  school  furniture. 

Besides  these  absolute  requisites,  school  furniture  should  be  (1) 
economical  as  to  price — the  best  need  not  be  the  most  expensive; 
(2)  readily  taken  apart,  for  safe  and  cheap  transportation — the 
patented  manner  of  "dove-tailing"  the  several  parts  permits  this, 
besides  rendering  the  effects  of  shrinking,  swelling,  and  warping 
impossible. 


Sizes-. 


The  sizes  of  all  our  styles  of  School  Furniture  are  uniform,  as  shown  in  the 
following  table.  The  lengths  are  for  desks  and  settees  for  two  pupils,  and  are  commonly 
called  Double  Desks  and  Settees.  The  furniture  called  "  Children's,"  is  adapted  to 
pupils  in  infant  schools ;  that  called  "  Small  Primary,"  is  adapted  to  pupils  aged  from 
5  to  7  years;  "Primary,"  to  those  aged  ,7<  jo  10  years;  ".Intermediate,"  10  to  13; 
"Grammar,"  12  to  15;  "High  School,"  15  to  19;  "Academic,"  to  adults.  Due 
allowance  should  be  made  for  the  variable  sizes  of  children  in  different ,  latitudes.  Great 
care  should  be  used  to  avoid  selecting  sizes  too  large  .for,  the  grade  of  the  pupils.  This 
mistake  occurs  more  frequently  than  that  of  grading; the. desks  and  settees  too  low.  We 
all  know  that  we  rest  better  in  a  low  chair  than  in  a  high  one: 

LENGTH.  HEIGHT  OF. DESK.'.        "WIDTH'OFiDESK.  HEIGHT  OF  SEAT. 

Children's,  36  inches.  18  inches1.  10|  inches.  9$  inches. 

Small  Primary,         36      "  20.     "  10        "  11       " 

Primary,  36      "  22^r     "  12        "  12       " 

intermediate,  36      "  25       "  15  13^     " 

Grammar  School,    42      "  26£     '"  15        "  15       " 

High  School,  42      "  27 i     "  15        "  16|     " 

Academic,  42      "  29£     fl  15        "  17       " 

Settees  for  rear  rows — any  size,  to  match  the  desks. 

Desk  height  is  measured  at  front—  back  edge  is  1£  inches  higher..  Seat  height  is 
measured  at  front,  with  a  comfortable  pitch  of  about  1  finches 

Single  Desks  intended  for  one  pupil,  have  same  dimensions  as  double  desks,  except 
length,  which  varies  from  18  to  24  inches. 

The  average  space  required  on  f the!  floor  .of  the.  school-room  for  Children's,  Small 
Primary,  Primary,  and  Intermediate  sizes,.'is  25  by  36*inches. 

The  Grammar,  High  School,  andj Academic,  require  "about  28  by  42  inches.\ 

The  width  of  the  aisles  must  depend  ;upon. circumstances^  Folding  seats  require  less 
waste  of  space  for  aisles  than  fixed  seats.  18  to  24  inches  is  ample. 

Of  each  style  of  desks  and  seats  we  have  the  sizes  "named  at  the  bottom  of  the  page  on 
which  the  said  style  is  described. 

Price  Lists  will  be  sent  on  application  with  stamp.  *  In  calling  for  price  lists,  it  is 
well  to  mention  the  number  and  grade  of  pupils  requiring  furniture. 


SCHOOL    FURNITURE. 


STYLE    A. 

The  American  Settees,  with  Slate-Rests  and  Book-Boxes. 


1.  The  "  Cornell"  Settee,  for  Primary  and  Intermediate  Classes. 

THE  men  and  women  of  to-day  can  readily  recall  the  aches  and  pains  inflicted  upon  them 
'by  the  ill-shaped  furniture  of  thirty  years  ago.  The  school  officers  of  that  period  were  apt 
to  consider  anything  good  enough  for  "  the  smaller  scholars,"  and  to  act  with  disregard  to 
the  comfort  of  children,  which  has  done  more  to  create  positive  "  hatred  of  school"  than 
any  other  one  cause. 

The  style  illustrated  in  the  cut  is  as  easy  and  comfortable  as  it  is  possible  to  construct 
school  furniture.  The  shape  of  the  seat  and  back  is  precisely  adapted  to  fit  the  natural 
outlines  of  the  persons  of  pupils.  This  shape,  together  with  the  proper  pitch  of  the  seat, 
tends  to  compel  an  erect  posture,  which  is  sure  to  induce  better  health  and  habits  than  can 
be  expected  when  uncomfortable  furniture  is  used. 

Style  A  is  intended  more  especially  for  those  in  the  children's  and  primary  departments, 
and  for  those  in  the  intermediate  department  who  have  not  yet  attained  to  the  "  copy-book" 
degree.  The  arm,  or  "  slate-rest,"  is  sufficient  for  supporting  the  books  and  slates  of  the 
children,  who  can  rest  upon  it  when  they  lean  forward.  The  book-boxes  beneath  the  seat 
are  ample  for  putting  away  books,  slates,  etc.,  when  not  in  use. 

This  style  is  economical  as  to  price  and  as  to  space  required.  It  is  constructed  under 
the  dove- tailed  patent,  hence  is  very  substantial,  and  being  easily  taken  apart  ("knocked 
down"),  may  be  cheaply  shipped,  and  readily  put  together  at  its  destination. 

It  is  made  of  three  heights — 1,  CHILDREN'S  ;  2,  PRIMARY  ;  and  3,  INTERMEDIATE  ;  in 
lengths  of  3  ft.,  4%  ft.,  6  ft.,  7-J  ft.,  and  9  ft.,  with  slate-rests  for  two,  three,  four,  five,  or  six 
pupils  respectively. 


SCHOOL   FURNITURE. 


Popular  School  Desks  and  Settees. 

STYLE    B. 

(Hungers  Patents,  and  Allen's  Opera  Seat  Patents.) 


The  inventor  of  THE  NEW  AMERICAN  SCHOOL  DESKS  AND  SETTEES,  which  have 
become  so  widely  famous,  devised  this  style  in  response  to  the  demands  of  school  officers 
who  want  good  school  furniture  at  cheaper  rates  than  any  heretofore  made.  At  the  same 
time,  in  this  cheaper  style  many  of  the  superior  points  of  the  original  invention  have  been 
preserved,  substantial  wood  ends  being  used  in  place  of  the  expensive  iron  frames. 


They  are  comfortable — the  backs  and  seats  having  the  proper  curve.  They  have  the 
indispensable  folding  seats.  They  are  constructed  under  the  "  dove-tailing"  patent,  and 
hence  may  be  shipped  flat,  and  readily  put  together  by  unskilled  persons.  No  more  sub- 
stantial desks  than  these  are  made.  Some  may  object  to  the  wood  ends,  which  certainly 
are  not  as  light  and  graceful  as  the  iron  frames.  In  many  sections,  however,  they  have 
found  great  favor,  and  are  pronounced  as  good  as  the  more  expensive  furniture. 

The  following  are  the  regular  sizes  by  name  and  by  number ;  the  dimensions  in  detail 
are  given  in  another  place : 


4.  Children's  Desk  and  Settee— for  two  Pupils. 

5.  Primary, 

6.  Intermediate, 

7.  Grammar, 

8.  High  School, 

9.  Academic, 

1 0.  Settees  for  Rear  Rows 


4|.  Children's  D.  and  S.— for  one  Pupil 
5i.  Primary, 
6|.  Intermediate, 
7i.  Grammar, 
8i.  High  School, 
9J.  Academic, 
lOf  Settees  for  Rear  Rows  " 


10  SCHOOL   FURNITURE. 

STYLE    C. 

The  New  England  School  Desks, 

WITH  FOLDING  CHAIES. 


THIS  style  is  so  called  because  School  Desks  of  similar  appearance  have  long  been 
popular  in  many  parts  of  New  England. 

The  desk,  simple  and  economical  in  construction,  has  its  several  parts  joined  on  the 
"  dove-tailed"  plan,  so  that  it  may  be  packed  entirely  flat,  and  put  up  at  its  destination. 
Hence  its  transportation  is  exceedingly  cheap.  The  several  parts  fit  perfectly,  and  the 
application  of  a  little  glue  to  the  dove-tailing  parts  when  they  are  put  together,  makes  them 
perfectly  firm  and  substantial. 

THE  FOLDING  CHAIR  is  A  NOVELTY,  which  gratifies  the  wants  of  those  who  demand 
the  individual  as  well  as  the  folding  seat.  The  curves  of  the  backs  and  seats  are  the  same 
as  those  of  our  "  New  American  Desks  and  Settees." 

These  chairs  are  made  folding,  under  the  patents  of  A.  H.  Allen,  the  inventor  of  the 
famous  Opera  Seat.  We  have  purchased  the  exclusive  use  of  his  patents,  in  their  applica- 
tion to  school  furniture,  at  a  great  expense.  Teachers  and  school  officers  who  have  most 
carefully  and  intelligently  studied  the  wants  of  modern  schools,  demand  FOLDING  SEATS. 

Style  C  may  be  recommended  for  general  utility  and  economy,  but  not  for  beauty. 
Though  better,  in  appearance,  than  the  cut  represents,  yet  it  cannot  be  depended  upon 
to  improve  the  taste  of  the  rising  generation. 

There  are  five  sizes,  for  two  pupils : — 11.  PRIMARY, — 12.  INTERMEDIATE, — 13. 
GRAMMAR, — 14.  HIGH  SCHOOL,  and  15.  ACADEMIC.  Also  five  sizes,  for  one  pupil : — 
11£.  PRIMARY, — 12|.  INTERMEDIATE, — 13^.  GRAMMAR, — 14|.  HIGH  SCHOOL, — 15£. 
ACADEMIC.  The  dimensions  are  the  same  as  appear  in  the  table  of  standard  sizes. 


SCHOOL    FURNITURE. 


11 


STYLE    D. 

The  Accommodation  School  Desks, 

WITH  THE  WILCOX  FOLDING  CHAIRS. 


THIS  style  (D)  is  a  considerable  improvement  on  style  (7,  and  is  somewhat  more  ex- 
pensive. 

The  DESK  has  strong  iron  frames,  which  give  it  a  light  and  graceful  appearance.  All 
the  iron  parts  dovetail  into  the  wood-work,  making  it  convenient  to  pack  it  flat,  and  put 
it  together  at  its  destination.  This  manner  of  joining  the  parts  strengthens  the  desk,  as 
the  wood  and  iron  mutually  brace  and  stiffen  each  other. 

The  CHAIR,  devised  by  Mr.  Wilcox,  is  a  success.  It  has  the  proper  comfortable  shape — 
both  back  and  seat  being  curved ;  it  affords  independent  seats  for  each  pupil — which  some 
teachers  prefer;  and  its  appearance  is  GOOD. 

Its  merits,  compared  with  the  "  pedestal  chair,"  need  not  be  seriously  discussed.  Ped- 
estal chairs  invariably  become  loose  because  of  the  severe  strain  upon  the  screws  which 
(at  first)  fasten  them  to  the  floor.  Their  construction  permits  this — and  they  then  prove 
very  noisy  and  annoying.  The  Wilcox  chair  can  have  no  difficulty  of  this  kind.  Its 
construction  renders  it  absolutely  firm  under  all  circumstances.  It  is  well  balanced,  and 
even  without  screws,  it  will  do  quite  as  well  as  ordinary  household  chairs.  Moreover,  it  is 
FOLDING — the  many  advantages  of  which  need  not  be  named  here.  Well-informed  educa- 
tors everywhere  demand  foldmy  seats. 

Of  this  style  there  are  the  following,  whose  dimensions  are  given  in  the  "  table  of  stand- 
ard sizes." 


1 6.  Primary  Desk  and  Chairs— for  two  Pupils. 

17.  Intermediate, 

18.  Grammar, 

19.  High  School, 

20.  Academic,  " 


H-  Primary  D.  and  Chair— for  one  Pupil. 
ri.  Intermediate,         " 


184-.  Grammar, 
19±.  High  School, 
20*.  Academic, 


12 


SCHOOL   FURNITURE. 


STYLES    E    &   F. 

The  New  American  School  Desks  and  Settees. 

(Munger's  Patents,  with  Allen's  Opera-Seat  Patent.) 


E.  Combined  Desk  and  Settee, 


F.  Independent  Desk  and  Settee. 


The  exact  physiological  curvature  of  the  seat  and  back  has  not  been  easy  to 
find. — Much  time  was  spent  in  gradual  approaches  to  this  curve.  Different  models  were  sub- 
jected to  the  criticism  of  teachers  and  school-children,  and  the  still  severer  test  of  use.  The 
faults  of  each  form  were  carefully  noted  and  corrected,  until  their  various  and  often  obscure 
defects  were  eliminated  and  the  proper  curve  determined.  That  it  was  no  easy  task  to 
discover  the  shape  universally  adapted  to  the  persons  of  old  and  young— which  would  sup- 
port the  body  just  where  it  needs  supporting,  and  leave  it  free  at  every  other  point — is  well 

attested  by  the  almost  universal  failure  of  cabinet-makers 
and  upholsterers  to  devise  a  chair,  settee,  car-seat,  or 
church-pew  that  one  can  sit  on  half  an  hour  without 
positive  discomfort.      The  commonest    faults   (where  a 
curve  is  attempted)  are  too  great  a  curvature,  or  a  mis- 
placed one — a  curve  that  strikes  the  back  too  high  up, 
gouging  the  sitter  under  the  shoulder-blades,  or  one  bear- 
ing upon  the  shoulders  like  a  yoke.     Fig.  x  represents  a 
seat,  curiously  contrived  to  miss  the  end  intended.     It  is  a 
copy  of  a  portion  of  the  engraved  illustration  of  a  certain 
"  Sofa-backed"  school  seat.     A  more  elaborate  contrivance 
for  forcing  children  to  sit  on  the  small  of  the  back  would 
be  hard  to  find.     Every  one  of  the  curves  is  just  the  reverse 
of  what  it  should  be.     We  have  seen  School  Furniture 
with  a  boasted  "  curved  back,"  having  the  edges  of  the  back  rudely  "  rounded  off"  a  little, 
regardless  of  the  natural  outlines  of  the  bodies  of  the  pupils.     That,  however,  is  a  farce 
which  can  hardly  satisfy  the  enlightened  wants  of  the  educators  of  the  present  day. 
.The  euryes  of  the  backs  and  scats  of  Styles  E  and  F  are  faultless.         [OVER] 


Fig.  x  (Bad  Form). 


SCHOOL   FURNITURE. 


13 


The  folding  seat  is  the  nicest  adaptation  of  Allen's  Opera-seat  patent 
yet  conceived  of.  It  is  perfectly  simple  and  noiseless.  The  lever  works  in  a  mortise, 

inaccessible  to  the  fingers  or  dress  of  the 
children.  And  whether  the  seat  is  down, 
or  folded  up,  it  rests  upon  rubber  cush- 
ions, which,  besides  making  it  lioise- 
less,  yield  a  grateful  spring  to  the  occu- 
pants. It  is  difficult  to  show  on  paper 
the  nice  points  of  this  folding  seat.  The 
accompanying  cut  may  perhaps  give  some 
idea  of  it;  but  the  thing  itself  must  be 
seen  and  used  to  be  perfectly  understood 
and  appreciated. 

The  dove-tailing  patent  is 
used  for  attaching  the  wood  and  iron. 
This  prevents  all  warping  or  checking  of 
the  wood,  and  allows  the  furniture  to  be 
Independent  Settee,  with  Book-Box.         readily  taken  apart  and  safely  packed  for 

shipment,  at  about  one-fifth  of  the  usual  freight  charges  on  set-up  furniture. 

Style  E  is  the  best  Combined  Desk  and  Settee  made.  Its  great 
width  of  base ;  the  perfect  balance  of  all  its  parts,  rendering  it  steady  even  without  the  use 
of  floor  screws ;  and  the  rigid  union  of  the  wood  and  iron,  make  it  so  strong  and  firm  that 
the  chief,  if  not  the  only  objection  to  combined  desks  and  settees,  liability  to  "joggle," 
is  reduced  to  almost  nothing. 

Style  F  has  been  prepared  for  those  who  have  insuperable  objections  to  combined  desks 
and  settees.  Such  persons  will  recognize  a  special  triumph  in  the  Independent 
Desks  and  Settees.  These  will  give  the  same  appearance  to  the  School  Room  as 
Style  E.  The  Desks  and  Settees  stand  close  together,  are  perfectly  symmetrical,  and  yet 
are  entirely  distinct.  No  space  is  wasted,  and  no  desk  and  settee  touch  each  other. 

In  Styles  E  and  F  the  space  for  books  is  ample  on  a  shelf  beneath  the  desk-top.  In 
the  double  desks  this  shelf  is  divided  in  the  middle  by  a  partition.  The  ends  of  the  desks 
are  open-work  to  permit  easy  inspection  by  the  teacher,  and  prevent  the  introduction  of 
contraband  articles. 

These  styles  are  considered  complete  to  the  minutest  details.  They  are  careful  and 
artistic  combinations  of  all  the  absolute  requisites  of  perfect  School  Furni- 
ture. They  are  unrivalled  in  comfort,  in  strength  and  durability,  in  finished 
workmanship,  and  in  graceful  and  elegant  appearance. 

Men  of  the  best  mechanical  ideas  and  those  who  have  given  most  study  to  modern  School 
Furniture  are  the  loudest  in  their  praises. 

The  Combined  has  the  following  dimensions  in  "'  table  of  standard  sizes :" 


21.  Children's  Desk  and  Settee— for  two  Pupils. 

22.  Primary, 

23.  Intermediate, 

24.  Grammar, 

25.  High  School, 

26.  Academic, 

27.  Settees  for  "Rear  Rows, 

28.  Ditto  with  Book-Box, 

The  Independent : 

29.  Primary  Desk  and  Chairs— for  two  Pupils. 

30.  Intermediate, 

31.  Grammar, 

32.  High  School, 

33.  Academic, 

34.  Settees  for  Rear  Rows, 

35.  Ditto  with  Book-Box, 


21*.  Children's  D.  and  S.— for  one  Pupil. 

22*.  Primary, 

23*.  Intermediate, 

24*.  Grammar, 

25*.  High  School, 

26*-  Academic, 

27*.  Settees  for  Rear  Rows, 

28*.  Ditto  with  Book-Book, 


29*.  Primary  D.  and  Chair— for  one  Pupil. 

3O*.  Intermediate, 

31*.  Grammar, 

32*.  High  School, 

33*.  Academic, 

34*.  Settees  for  Rear  Rows, 

35*.  Ditto  with  Book-Box, 


SCHOOL   FURNITURE. 


STYLE    G-. 

Assembly-Room  Desks  and  Settees 

(Hunger's  Patents  with  Allen's  Opera-Seat  Patent.) 


It  is  often  necessary  that  the  School-room  be  used  for  a  general  Assembly-room — for 
Sunday-school,  Public  Lectures,  and  other  purposes.  Hence  Furniture  which  will  permit 
tlie  School-room  to  be  readily  transformed  into  an  Assembly- 
room,  has  long  been  desired.  Inventors  in  this  Country  and  in  Great  Britain  have 
tried  their  skill ;  but  with  clumsy  and  expensive  results.  The  achievement  illustrated  in 
the  cuts  is  a  decided  success. 

Economy  of  cost  and  space ;  strength  and  simplicity  of  construction ;  ease  and  rapidity 
of  changing  a  School-room  of  Desks  into  an  Assembly-room  of  Settees :  all 

have  been  considered  and  accomplished.  With  this 
Furniture  it  is  easy  for  the  School-room  to  serve  the 
double  purpose  of  School  and  Public  Hall. 

The  top  is  easily  let  down  by  the  pupils, 
while  seated  in  their  places.  The  book-boxes 
are  located  as  shown  at  A  A  A,  extending  the  entire 
length  of  the  Desks,  giving  ample  book  and  slate 
room.  When  the  Desks  are  folded  the  book-boxes 
are  closed,  keeping  out  the  dust.  Book-boxes  may 
also  be  attached  beneath  the  seats — as  shown  on 
Settees  on  another  page.  When  desired  they  may 
be  supplied  with  locks. 

When  Desk  and  Seat  are  both  folded,  less  than 
one  foot  in  width  is  occupied,  leaving  ample  space  for 
gymnastic  exercises,  passages,  etc.  ( See  Cut. ) 

The  folding  Seat  (Allen's  Opera-seat  patent),  with 
the  Comfortable  Curves  of  both  back  and  seat,  which  have  made  the  New  American 
Sell ool  Desks  and  Settees  so  widely  famous,  do  good  service  in  this  style. 

The  Assembly  Desks  and  Settees  have  five  sizes,  see  table  of  standard  sizes : 

36.  Primary  Desk  and  Settee— for  two  Pupils.  36*.  Primary  D.  and  Settee— for  one  Pupil. 

37.  Intermediate,  37*.  Intermediate, 

38.  Grammar,  38*.  Grammar,                " 

39.  High  School,  39*.  High  School, 

40.  Academic,  40*.  Academic, 

41.  Settees  for  Eear  Rows,  41*.  Settees  for  Rear  Rows, 

42.  Ditto  with  Book-box,  "                 42*.  Ditto  with  Book-box, 


SCHOOL    FURNITURE. 


15 


STYLE   H. 

"Old  Style"  Desks  and  Chairs. 


We  are  ready  to  supply  the  "  Old  Style"  Desks  and  Chairs,  though  we  do  not  care  to 
recommend  the  uncomfortable  and  inconvenient  chairs,  and  do  not  deny  that  distant  cus- 
tomers will  find  the  transportation  expenses  a  very  important  item.  Yet,  many  School 
Officers  have  long  endured  this  style  of  Furniture,  and  many  others  may  find  no  insupera- 
ble objections  to  it :  and  some- 
times, for  special  reasons,  may 
prefer  it. 

The  iron-work  is  strong  and 
plain,  having  no  points  nor  angles 
to  tear  the  dress  and  catch  the 
dust. 

Besides  the  chairs  which  appear 
in  the  cut  above,  the  "  Circular 
Back  Pedestal"  chairs,  and  the 
"  Extra  School"  chairs  are  appro- 
priate for  use  with  these  desks. 
The  three  styles  are  about  the 
same  price. 


Circular  Back  Pe- 
destal Chair. 


Extra  School  Chair. 


[Sometimes  we  have  of  this  and  similar  styles  second-hand  lots,  but  little  used,  and  "  as  good  as 
new,11  which  we  can  supply  "  at  bargains.11  School  Officers  desiring  to  exchange  them  for  modern 
styles,  place  them  in  storage  for  us  to  dispose  of  at  "a  sacrifice."  We  will  not  attempt  to  sell 
them  to  customers  who  cannot  call  and  examine  them  for  themselves.] 


There  are  five  sizes : 

43.  Primary  Desk  and  Chairs— for  two  Pupils. 

44.  Intermediate, 

45.  Grammar, 

46.  High  School, 

47.  Academic, 


43*.  Primary  D.  and  Chair— for  one  Pupil, 
44*.  Intermediate, 
45*.  Grammar, 
46*.  High  School, 
47*.  Academic, 


16 


SCHOOL    FURNITURE. 


STYLE  I. 

Desks  with  Lids. 


This  style  is  an  old  favorite,  yet  in  fair  demand.  It  suits  certain  tastes,  and  meets  the 
requirements  of  certain  circumstances  which  other  styles  may  not  seem  to  satisfy. 

We  make  these  desks  as  handsomely  as  their  construction  will  permit.  The  iron  sup- 
ports are  substantial  and  plain — entirely  without  angles  and  points  to  tear  the  dress  and 
afford  lodgement  for  dust.  They  are  fitted  to  screw  fast  to  the  floor,  though  they  may  be 
used  without  the  floor-screws.  They  are  well  braced — (our  artist  has  not  clearly  shown 
the  braces  in  the  cut). 

The  box  part  is  well  made  of  thoroughly  seasoned  wood.  The  lids  have  brass  hinges, 
and  close  on  rubber  cushions  to  avoid  noise. 

The  book-box  beneath  the  lids  is  divided  into  two  compartments  in  the  double  desks, 
each  of  which  is  supplied  with  a  little  shelf  for  pens,  pencils,  etc,  and  each  lid  has  a  brace 
for  holding  it  when  open.  The  top  is  properly  inclined  for  writing.  The  level  part  of  the 
top  is  grooved  for  pens  and  pencils,  and  is  bored  for  inkwells. 

The  Lids  are  made  plain,  and  finished  in  the  usual  manner,  or  they  are  covered  with 
green  enamelled  cloth,  as  may  be  ordered. 

Any  chairs,  movable,  fixed,  or  folding,  may  be  used  with  these  desks.  Chairs  are  sold 
separately. 

There  are  five  sizes — heights  are  given  in  table  of  standard  sizes 


48.  Primary  Box  D.  with  Lids— for  two  Pupils. 

49.  Intermediate, 

50.  Grammar, 

51.  High  School,  " 

52.  Academic,  " 


4  8*.  Primary  B.  D.  with  Lids— for  one  Pnpil. 
49|.  Intermediate, 
5(H.  Grammar, 
51*.  High  School, 
52*.  Academic, 


SCHOOL   FURNITURE. 


17 


STYLE     JMCONTINUED). 

Single  Box  Desks  with  Lids. 


The  cut  represents  the  Box  Desks  with  Lids  adapted  to  one  pupil.  They  are  con- 
structed precisely  like  those  intended  for  two  pupils,  with  same  dimensions  except  as  to 
length.  Any  kind  of  chairs  may  be  used  with  these  desks : — we  have  chairs  to  suit  all 
tastes,  and  all  purses. 

Most  educators  appreci- 
ate the  varied  advantages 
of  the  folding  chairs,  and 
insist  on  having  them.  Of 
these  there  are  two  kinds — 
the  new  American  fold- 
ing chair  and  the  Wilcox 
folding  chair  —  both  of 
which  are  made  under  the 
Allen  Opera -Seat  Fa- 
tents. 

Five  sizes  of  these  desks 
and  chairs,  uniform  with 
heights  in  table  of  standard 
sizes. 


New  American  Chair. 


Wilcox  Chair. 


[Chairs  appearing  on  these  two  pages  (representing  Box  Desks  with  Lids)  are  named  as  follows— 
we  enumerate  them  in  the  order  in  which  they  appear:  (a)  Circular  Back,  Cane  seat; 
(b)  Circular  Back,  "Wood  seat ;  (c)  Extra  Soli ool ;  (d)  Curved  Back,  C'ane 
seat;  (e)  New  American  Folding;  (f)  Wilcox  Folding.] 


53.  Primary  B.  D.  with  Lid— for  one  Pupil. 

54.  Intermediate,         " 

55.  Grammar, 


56.  High  School  B.  D.  with  Lid— for  one  Pupil. 

57.  Academic, 


18 


SCHOOL   FURNITURE. 


Single  Desks,  like  Style  D,  with  Chairs, 


Economy  of  cost  and  space,  and  sometimes  other  considerations,  induce  school  officers 
and  teachers  generally  to  purchase  double  desks,  to  accommodate  two  pupils.  However, 
desks  for  single  pupils  are  frequently  called  for.  Henee,  all  of  the  desks  shown  in  this 
catalogue  are  made  single,  for  one  pupil,  as  well  as  double,  for  two  pupils. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  occupy  our  pages  to  show  the  several  styles  of  single  desks,  since 
the  views  which  we  give  of  the  double  desks  are  sufficient  to  give  correct  impressions  of  the 
appearance  of  the  desks  when  made  for  one  pupil  instead  of  two — the  difference  being  in 
length  only. 

The  above  cut  represents  the  single  desk  of  Style  D,  shown  on  page  11. 

Any  style  of  chairs  to  suit  the  requirements  of  the  case  may  be  used.  We  have  already 
illustrated  several  kinds  of  movable,  fixed,  and  folding  chairs — to  which  we  would 
now  refer.  Sizes  are  uniform  with  Style  D. 


STYLE   J. 

Wall  Desks. 

Desks  like  that  shown  in  the  accompanying  cut  are 
occasionally  very  convenient  for  placing  around  the 
walls  of  the  school-room,  or  in  spaces  which  may 
sometimes  be  required  to  be  cleared  for  aisles.  The 
top  readily  folds  down,  like  the  tops  of  the  "  Assem- 
bly-Desks," to  make  a  free  passage  when  required.  The 
top,  in  folding  down,  incloses  the  book-box  A.  They 
are  made  to  order  in  any  required  lengths. 


There  are  five  sizes : 

58.  Primary. 

59.  Intermediate. 

60.  Grammar. 


61.  High  School. 

62.  Academic. 


SCHOOL   FURNITURE. 


19 


STYLE  K. 


The  New  York  Desk-Settee, 


The  Patenl;  Desk-Settees,  illustrated  above,  are  used  very  extensively  in  the  Public 
Schools  of  New  York  City.  They  have  been  in  use  since  1864,  and  have  been  very 
severely  and  satisfactorily  tested. 

They  have  two  scats— the  upper  seat  being  arranged  to  turn  up  and  over  to  form  a 
desk,  the  lower  seat  being  occupied  by  the  pupil  when  writing,  and  the  upper  seat  when 
the  top  is  folded  down,  to  convert  the  desks  into  settees. 


This  cut  gives 
the  same  desks  in 
another  position, 
and  shows  the 
sliding  frame  for 
holding  books, 
slates,  or  copies  for 
drawing,  etc.,  etc. 
When  not  in  use, 
the  frame  is  passed 
down  behind  the 
seat.  They  all 
have  book -boxes 
beneath  the  seat, 
book-racks  attach- 
ed to  the  backs, 
inkwells,  etc. 
They  are  very  substantially  constructed.  When  desired,  they  will  be  supplied  with 

plain  backs,  in  place  of  the  balluster  backs  shown  in  the  cuts.     There  are  the  usual  sizes 

for  all  grades  of  schools  : 

63,  Primary;  64,  Intermediate;  65,  Grammar;  66,  High  School;  67,  Academic. 


20 


SCHOOL   FURNITURE. 


Normal  and  Collegiate  Desks. 


68.  Plain  Box  Desk,  with  Lid  and  Brace  for  holding  it  open, 

Substantial  iron  supports,  thoroughly  braced.     The  top  is  grooved  for  pencils  and  pens, 

and  is  bored  for  ink-wells.     It  is  made  of  ash  or  cherry,  with  plain  or  cloth  top  as  may  be 

desired. 

•   The  Chair  shown  in  the  cut  is  Oak,  Curved  Top,  Cane  Seat. 


69.  Similar  to  68,  with  more  elaborate  iron  supports.  Same  price.  It  is  expected  that 
•chairs  will  be  selected  to  suit  the  wants  of  the  purchaser.  These  desks  are  quite  as  well 
adapted  to  one  style  of  chair  as  another. 

The  Chair  shown  in  the  cut  is  the  Wilcox  Folding  Chair. 


SCHOOL   FURNITURE. 


Normal  and  Collegiate  Desks. 


21 


70.  Turned  Post,  Box  Desk, 

With  lid  and  brace,  enamelled  cloth  top.  It  is  usually  made  of  Black  Walnut,  but  will 
be  supplied  in  Ash  or  Cherry,  when  desired.  It  is  specially  desirable  when  the  desks  are 
required  to  be  movable.  The  Chair  shown  is  the  Extra  School. 


71.  The  New  American  Collegiate  Desk 

Is  a  very  superior  desk,  with  a  drawer,  book-rack,  etc.    The  Chair  is  the  New  American 
Folding  Chair.     Of  course  any  chairs  may  be  used  with  70  and  71. 

The  four  preceding  desks,  Nos.  68,  69,  70,  and  71,  are  supplied  double,  for  two  pupils, 
as  well  as  single,  as  shown  in  the  cuts. 

Besides  the  desks  here  enumerated,  all  of  our  many  styles  are  made  large 
enough  to  adapt  them  to  Normal  and  Collegiate  use§. 


SCHOOL    FURNITURE. 


Lecture-Room  Settees  for  Seminaries,  Colleges, 

1STOEMAL  SCHOOLS,  AKD  UOTYEKSITIES. 


72.  The  Cornell  Lecture-Room  Settee 

Was  originally  devised  and  constructed  for  Cornell  University.  Its  use  there  has  been 
highly  approved  by  the  president,  faculty,  students,  and  visitors.  And  it  is  in  most  satis- 
factory use  in  several  of  the  first  Colleges,  Theological  Seminaries,  Normal  Schools,  and 
other  prominent  institutions. 

The  settee  itself  is  the  same  as  our  New  American  Settee.  To  this  is  attached,  at 
intervals  to  suit  the  circumstances  of  the  case,  desks,  suitable  for  students'  use  in  taking 
notes.  These  are  strongly  supported  by  ornamental  cast-iron  brackets,  front  and  rear. 

Settees  are  estimated  by  the  foot  at  prices  shown  in  our  price  listf.  When  book-box  is 
attached  (as  in  cut)  2O  cents  per  foot  additional  is  charged.  Writing  desks  (with 
brackets)  for  each  student,  $1.OO. 

They  are  shipped  flat,  or  "  knocked  down,"  making  transportation  expenses  scarcely 
one-tenth  of  that  on  ordinary  settees. 


73.  The  Cornell  Examination  Table 

Was  constructed  at  the  suggestion  of  Hon.  A.  D.  White,  President  of  Cornell  University. 
It  contains  no  drawer  for  the  concealment  of  papers,  and  folds  flat  for  compact  storage 
when  not  required  for  examination  purposes.  A  hundred  may  be  put  away  in  a  moderate 
size  closet.  • 


SCHOOL   MATERIAL. 


23 


READING    STANDS. 


36. 

The  Outs    36  and  37  illustrate  Stagg's  Patent  Revolving  Reading  Stands. 

Cut  36  shows  a  stand  entirely  folded  up.  It  is  thus  adapted  to  a  variety  of  school, 
library,  office,  or  household  uses. 

37  shows  it  with  book -rack  elevated  and  occupied  by  a  book.  The  top  serves  as  a 
brace,  as  well  as  a  sloping  desk  on  which  the  reader  may  make  his  notes  and  memoranda. 
The  book  is  held  open  by  nicely-adapted  fingers.  Price,  $10.00. 


The  Lecturer's  Reading  Stand  (38) 

Is  a  complete  book  -  rest  for  the  public 
reader.  It  is  readily  adjusted  to  any  height, 
and  to  any  inclination  of  desk.  It  has  elas- 
tic fingers  to  retain  the  book  or  manuscript. 
It  is  substantial  in  construction  and  elegant  in 
appearance.  It  is  a  useful  and  ornamental 
article  for  the  private  and  public  library. 

In  the  public  schools  of  New  York  city 
it  is  used  as  a  Bible  stand.  For  general 
utility  it  has  no  equal. 

For  use  in  Sunday-schools,  lecture-rooms, 
and  public  halls  there  is  nothing  to  equal  this 
reading  stand.  It  has  had  fair  trial,  with 
satisfaction. 

The  feet  are  of  iron,  shaped  to  give  great 
stability  to  the  stand,  even  when  occupied  by 
a  heavy  book. 

For  shipment  the  feet  are  readily  taken  off 
to  render  transportation  safe  and  cheap. 

Price   of   Lecturer's    Reading  Stand, 
$15.00. 


SCHOOL   MATERIAL. 


Adjustable  Stand 

FOB 

Artists,  Draughtsmen,  and  Students. 


This  Stand  can  be  adjusted  to  any  required  height.  Its  top  can  be  set  at  any  inclina- 
tion, and  by  turning  back  the  screw  at  the  right,  it  is  allowed  to  rotate  to  bring  either 
side  in  front.  All  adjustments  are  easily  made,  thus  allowing  it  to  be  used  when  sitting 
or  standing,  with  equal  facility,  as  artist's  easel,  draughtsman's  stand,  or  study 
table.  It  is  good  for  holding  large  books  of  reference. 

It  is  the  best  thing  for  draughtsmen,  because  it  enables  them  to  turn  or  incline  their  work 
at  pleasure.  And  it  is  a  most  complete  artist's  easel,  for,  by  a  touch,  the  light  on  the  pic- 
ture may  be  entirely  changed. 

It  is  made  almost  entirely  of  iron,  with  substantial  wood  top,  and  its  tasteful  appear- 
ance makes  it  equally  acceptable  in  the  office,  counting-room,  library,  or  school-room. 

PRICES,    ETC. 

PTNE  TOP,  stained,  21x?4,  plain $10  00 

BLACK  WALNUT  TOP,  22x26,  casters 11  00 

BLACK  WALNUT  TOP,  22x26,  moulded  edge,  castings  richly  bronzed 13  50 

BLACK  WALNUT  TOP,  22x26,  moulded  edge,  gold  bronzed  and  ornamented..  15  00 


SCHOOL   FURNITURE. 


25 


Settees  for  Recitation  Rooms,  Sunday  Schools, 

PUBLIC    HALLS,    &c. 


82.  Common  Wood,  Plain  Seat,  Settee— Stump  Arm. 


83.  Turned  Spindle  Back,  Scooped  Seat,  Settee— Scroll  Arm. 


84.  Plat  Spindle  Back,  Fancy  Rail,  Double  Rounds,  Scooped  Seat,  Settee — 

Fancy  Brace  Arm. 


26 


SCHOOL   FURNITURE. 


Settees  for  Recitation  Rooms,  Sunday  Schools, 

PUBLIC     HALLS,    &c. 


85   Fancy  Flat  Baluster  Back,  Double  Fancy  Turned  Rounds,   Scooped 
Seat,  Settee — Fancy  Brace  Arm. 


86.  Slat  Back,  Cane  Seat,  Settee— Scroll  Brace  Arm, 


87.  Grecian,  Cane  Seat,  Flat  Front  Brace,  Settee — Fancy  Brace  Arm. 


SCHOOL    FURNITUKE. 


27 


Settees  for  Recitation  Rooms,  Sunday  Schools, 

PUBLIC    HALLS,    &c. 


88.  Flat  Fancy  Baluster  and  Rail,  Cane  Seat,  Settee— Fancy  Brace  Arm. 


89.  Fancy  Cane  Back  and  Seat,  Square  Rear  Posts— Fancy  Turned  Double 
Rounds,  Settee,  Spindled  Arm. 


90.  Flat  Baluster  Back,  Scooped  Seat,  Settee-Bent  Arm,  Spindled;    with 
Folding  Book-Shelf  attached. 


28 


SCHOOL   FURNITURE. 


Settees  for  Recitation  Booms,  Sunday  Schools, 

PUBLIC    HALLS,    &c. 


91.  Reversible,  or  Railroad  Plain   Spindle  Back,  Plain  Seat,  Settee— Bent 

Arm,  Spindled. 


92.  Reversible,  Turned   Spindle,    Scooped   Seat,  Settee— Iron  supports  and 

Arms. 


93.   Reversible,   Plat  Baluster,   Plain  Seat.   Fancy  Turned   Posts,  Settee- 
Bent  Arms,  Spindled, 


SCHOOL    FURNITURE. 


29 


Settees  for  Recitation  Rooms,  Sunday  Schools, 

PUBLIC    HALLS,    &c. 


94.    Reversible,   Curved    Slat  Back,    Curved   Seat,  Settee— Iron   Arms   and 
Supports.     Style  to  correspond  with  the  New  American  Settee. 

SETTEES  with  reversible  backs,  enabling  the  occupants  to  face  either  way,  are  not  un- 
common. They  are  known  in  the  lecture-room,  and  in  the  Sunday-school,  and  more 
particularly  in  the  railway  car.  But,  hitherto,  they  have  not  been  constructed  with 
adjustable  seats,  as  well  as  backs.  It  is  undeniable,  that  a  seat,  to  be  comfortable,  must 
pitch  downward  from  the  front  edge.  Comfort  and  physiological  considerations  alike 
demand  this. 


No.  95. 


No.  96. 


95.   Joeckel's   Reversible,   Spindle  Back,-  Pitching   Slat   Seat,   Settee— Iron 

Arms   and   Supports. 


96.   Joeckel's  Reversible,  Baluster  Back,  Pitching   Slat   Seat,    Setter 
Arms  and  Supports,  with  Book-Box. 


-Iron 


Mr.  JOECKEL'S  PATENT  SETTEES  have  this  advantage  besides  the  back  is  reversed 
without  turning  it  over.  It  is  suspended  on  a  pivot,  like  a  pendulum,  and  is  easily 
changed,  at  the  same  time  giving  the  seat  the  proper  pitch,  and  holding  it  securely  in 
position.  Strength  and  elegance  have  not  been  overlooked. 


30 


SCHOOL    FURNITURE. 


Settees  for  Recitation  Rooms,  Sunday  Schools, 

PUBLIC     HALLS,     &c. 


97.  The  Wilcox  Settee  has  a  Folding  Seat,  (under  Allen's  Opera-seat  patent), 
curved  slat  back  and  iron  supports.  It  is  a  cheaper  form  of  the  New  American 
Settee  described  in  another  place.  It  has  the  same  general  advantages  as  the  New  Ameri- 
can, and  can  be  shipped — "knocked  down" — -just  as  safely,  and  cheaply. 


New  American  Settee— Seat  folded  up. 

The  Wilcox  Settee  folds  just  as  compactly  as  the  New  American  shown  in 
the  cut,  giving  ample  space  for  standing,  or  for  passages,  sweeping,  etc. 

And  again,  if  the  hall  is  to  be  cleared  of  settees  tor  any  special  purposes,  these  settees 
may  be  most  compactly  stored,  each  settee  requiring  only  two  inches  of  space  in  width. 

The  Wilcox  Settee,  and  the  New  American  Set-tee  are  graded  to  suit  children  and  adults 
of  all  sizes.  The  regular  lengths  of  these  settees  are  6  feet,  7  feet,  8  feet,  9  feet,  and  10 
feet.  All  other  lengths  made  to  order. 


SCHOOL   FURNITURE. 


31 


Settees  for  Recitation  Rooms,  Sunday  Schools, 

PUBLIC     HALLS,    &c. 


98.  The  New  American  Settee  has  a  curved  fancy  slat  back,  and  a  curved 
seat — the  curve  being  the  same  as  that  which  has  made  the  New  American  School 
Desks  and  Settees  so  widely  famous  for  their  comfort.  The  wood  and  iron  are  dove-tailed 
together  under  Mr.  Hunger's  patents — the  advantages  of  which  are  obvious.  TllC 
seat  i§  folding,  under  Allen's  Opera-seat  patent. 

The  several  peculiar  advantages  of  this  settee  make  it  without  an  equal,  and  greatly 
superior  for  many  purposes. 


The  lever  device  for  folding,  as  now  constructed,  is  more  clearly  shown  in  the  accom- 
panying enlarged  cuts.  The  lever  is  pivoted  on  a  strong  bolt,  and  works  noiselessly  in  a 
mortise,  inaccessible  to  the  fingers  or  dress  :  and  whether  the  seat  is  up  or  down  it  rests  on 
rubber  cushions. 


32 


SCHOOL    FURNITURE. 


New  American  Settee  for  Primary  Schools, 


ALSO  SETTEE  WITH  FOLDING  ARMS. 


99.  New  American  Settee,  Primary,  Folding  Seat,  Book-Box. 

For  primary  schools  these  frequently  supply  a  convenient,  comfortable,  and  economical 
purpose.     Sometimes  a  book-rack  is  attached  to  the  back  of  the  settee. 


100.    New  American  Settee,  Folding  Seat,  and  Folding  Arms. 

This  style  was  constructed  at  the  suggestion  of  William  Ballantyne,  Esq.,  of  Washing- 
ton, D.  C.  It  has  peculiar  advantages  for  those  who  want  a  Folding  Settee  with 
Arms  which  readily  fold  with  the  Seat. 


SCHOOL  MATERIAL —PART  II, 
TEACHERS'   DESKS,   Etc, 


PAGE 

Bells — Academy,  School,  and  Church,  49 
Book   Shelves — Portable,       -                        ......      50 

Portable,  with  Writing-desks,  -            51 
Chairs  for  Teachers: — 

Windsor,  Bent  Top,  Extra  School,                  -  -      34 

Curved  Top,  "Bell,"  English  Cottage,  etc.,         -  35 

Grecian,  Continental,  Prescott,  etc.,  -      36 

Library,  Revolving — Four  Styles,  -            37 

Students',  Classical,  Cornell,  -      38 
Desks  for  Teachers: — 

Black  Walnut,  Turned  Posts,  No.  3,  39 

Brewer  Desk,  No.  13,  -     43 

Commissioner's  Desk,  No.  19,        -  45 

Department  Desk,  No.  17,  -      45 

Guilford  Desk,  No.  6,        -  41 

Home  Desks,  Nos.  31,  32,  33,  ...      43 

Household  Desks,  Nos.  34,  35,      -  48 

Library  Desk,  or  Flat  Top,  No.  11,    -  -      43 

Maydo  Desk,  Plain,  No.  1,  39 

Maydo  Desk,  Cloth  Top,  No.  2,  39 

Model  Desk,  No.  8,  42 

New  American,  Small,  No.  4,  -      40 

New  American,  Larger,  No.  5,  .  ~~~                                40 

New  Model,  No.  9,  -      42 

Organ  Desk,  No.  36,  ,                                     49 

Todd  Desk,  No.  7,                                                         ,  -      41 

Tremont  Platform  Desk,  No.  15,  44 

Library — Cases,  -      46 

Chairs,  37 

Tables,  -      46 

Tables  for  Teachers,  Seven  Kinds,  47 

Teacher's  Lamp — St.  Germain,  -      52 

Teacher's  Waste  Basket,                          -                       ....  38 


TEACHERS'  CHAIRS. 


1.  Common  Windsor,  Wood  Seat.  2.  Windsor,  Wood  Seat. 

(Too  common  and  cheap  for  regular  school    (Somewhat  better  than  No.  1,  hut  not  recom- 
use.) 


3.  Bent  Top,  Wood  Seat. 
(A  cheap  and  strong  chair.) 


4.  "Extra  School." 

(A  well-known  chair  improved.) 


TEACHERS     CHAIRS. 


35 


5.  Curved  Top,  Cane  Seat. 
(A  very  good  chair,  much  used  in  schools.) 


6.  "Bell"  Bannister. 

(Similar  to  No.  5,  costing  a  little  more.) 


7.  "Square"  Top,  Cane   Seat. 
(Somewhat  better  than  Nos.  5  and  6.) 


8.  Wood  Seat,  Bent  Arms,  with  Rods. 
(A  style  not  preferred  by  ladies.) 


9.  English  Cottage. 


10.  Cane  Seat,  Bent  Arms,  with  Rods, 

(Similar  in  style  to  No,  8-.) 


36 


TEACHERS'  CHAIRS. 


11.  Grecian,  Half  Arms. 


13.  Continental,  Cane  Seat. 


12.  Continental,  Wood  Seat. 
(A  durable  and  comfortable  chair.) 


14.  Banister. 


15.  Prescott  Arm-Chair. 

•(A  favorite  in  New  York  City  schools.) 


16.  Brace  Arm. 

(A  good  chair  for  ladies.) 


TEACHERS'  CHAIRS. 


37 


17.  Library.  Flat  Spindle. 


19.  Common  Arm,  Wood  Seat. 

(Revolving  pivot.) 


18.  Library,  New  Style. 


20.  Douglas,  Bent  Arms. 
(Revolving  pivot.) 


21.  Library,  Cane  Seat  and  Back.      22.  Crescent  Cane  Seat,  Spindle  Back, 
(Revolving  screw. )  (Revolving  screw. ) 


38  SCHOOL   MATERIAL. 

Teachers'  and  Students'  Chairs,  etc. 


23.  Student's  Chair. 


24.  Student's  Classical  Chair. 


23  is  an  old  favorite,  made  in  a  very  thorough  and  substantial  manner. 

24  has  a  wider  and  larger  desk  attached,  which  moves  on  a  bolt  passing  through  the 
arm  of  the  chair.    It  is  intended  to  hold  a  lexicon,  grammar,  and  another  book  or  two, 
and  will  be  found  specially  convenient  for  students  studying  classics. 


25.  "Cornell"  Chair. 


26.  Waste  Paper  Basket. 


25  is  a  veiy  strong  chair,  with  desk  attached.  It  may  be  screwed  to  the  floor;  but  will 
stand  well  without  the  screws.  For  shipping  it  can  be  taken  apart,  and  packed  flat. 

It  will  be  found  useful  as  a  Teacher's  Chair  in  the  School  Room,  a  Study  Chair  at  home, 
or  &  Student's  Chair  in  the  College  or  University  Lecture  Room.  In  lengths  for  several 
students  it  is  used  with  great  satisfaction  in  Cornell  University,  in  Rutgers  College,  in 
several  Theological  Seminaries,  and  in  other  first-class  Educational  Institutions. 

26.  The  Waste  Paper  Basket  is  a  necessary  companion  to  the  desk  of  teachers  and  others 
who  value  tidiness.  The  cut  illustrates  only  one  style,  made  of  "  round  willow,  crossbar 
work,  plain"  —  several  sizes  —  price  .........  60  to  .75. 

There  are  elaborate  fancy  styles  and  shapes,  colored,  varying  in  price  $2.00  to  $5.00. 


TEACHERS'  DESKS. 


1.  May  do  Desk,  Plain  Top.  2.  May  do  Desk,  Cloth  Top. 

(Size,  18  in.  by  24  inches.)  (Size,  18  in.  by  24  inches.) 

These  are  the  smallest,  plainest,  and  cheapest  desks  made  for  teachers.  The  supports 
may  be  taken  off  for  shipment,  making  transportation  cheap.  They  are  recommended 
only  in  cases  where  the  argument  of  economy  must  prevail. 


3.  Black  Walnut,  Turned  Supports. 

(Size,  22  in.  by  12  inches.) 

This  is  a  neat  desk,  with  more  capacity  than  Nos.  1  and  2,  and  yet  very  cheap.     How- 
ever, every  teacher  should  have  a  larger  desk  than  this. 


40 


TEACHERS'  DESKS. 


S.tFVUCJUfc 


4.  New  American,  Small  Size,  One  Drawer. 

(Size,  25  in.  by  27  inches.) 

This  is  specially  adapted  for  use  in  small  class-rooms.  It  occupies  very  little  space,  and 
has  unusual  capacity,  considering  its  size.  It  is  thoroughly  braced,  and  stands  very 
firmly.  It  is  precisely  like  No.  5,  fully  described  below,  except  that  it  is  shorter,  having 
only  one  drawer,  while  No.  5  hns  two.  The  discrepancy  in  the  appearance  of  the  two 
arises  from  the  fact  that  No.  5  is  drawn  on  a  smaller  scale. 


5.  New  American,  Regular  Size,  Two  Drawers. 

(Size,  25  in.  by  42  inches.) 

.An  excellent  desk  for  the  class-room.  The  book-rack  is  original,  simple,  and  convenient. 
It  allows  the  teacher  reference  books  at  hand,  yet  never  in  the  way,  while  globe  and  call- 
bell,  and  the  indispensable  Dictionary,  have  places  within  easy  reach.  Drawers,  with 
locks  and  keys,  afford  security  for  private  papers,  stationery,  records,  etc.  It  is  provided 
with  two  ink-wells,  one  for  black  and  one  for  red  ink,  so  placed  that  ink  cannot  get  from 
them  into  the  drawers.  This  desk  has  met  with  general  favor  in  the  schools  of  New  York 
City  and  elsewhere.  It  is  economically  packed  for  shipping.  It  has  been  patented. 


TEACHERS     DESKS, 


41 


6.  The  Guilford  Desk. 

(Size,  24  in.  by  45  inches.) 

This  is  a  very  convenient  and  graceful  desk,  with  fair  capacity.  It  contains  two  drawers 
and  a  book-box.  It  has  all  the  necessary  qualities  of  a  good  desk,  and  can  be  reconr 
mended  for  the  purpose  to  which  it  is  adapted.  Its  iron  supports  can  be  readily  taken  off 
for  safe  and  cheap  shipment. 


7.  The  Todd  Desk.    Two  Drawers  and  Book-box. 

(Size,  24  in.  by  45  inches.) 

This  desk  has  two  drawers  and  a  book-box  of  unusual  capacity  beneath  the  lid.  Besides 
the  two  drawers  and  pigeon-holes  shown  in  the  cut,  the  book-box  is  divided  into  small 
compartments  under  the  level  part  of  the  top,  for  putting  away  papers,  etc.  It  is  an  ex- 
cellent desk  for  school  purposes,  and  has  had  large  demand. 


TEACHERS     DESKS. 


8.     The  Model  Desk,     Four  Drawers  and  Book-Box. 

(Size,  24  in.  by  52  inches.) 

This  is  a  handsome  desk.  It  is  made  of  ash,  trimmed  with  black  walnut,  finished  in 
panels,  front,  rear,  and  ends,  having  a  remarkably  graceful  and  lively  appearance.  It 
has  four  drawers,  wide  book-box  beneath  the  lid,  with  ample  space  for  books  and  papers 
on  both  sides  of  the  writing  surface. 


9.    The  New  Model  Desk. 

It  has  the  size  and  capacity,  with  the  general  appearance,  of  No.  8,  though  plainer  and 
stronger.     For  this  reason  it  will  generally  be  preferred. 

10.     The  New  Model  Desk,  made  of  Black  Walnut. 


TEACHERS7    DESKS. 


11.  Teacher's  Desk,  with  Flat  Top,  Eight  Drawers. 

(Size,  24  in.  by  52  inches.) 

This  is  an  elaborately  finished  desk,  intended  for  the  principal's  platform,  the  side  to  the 
school  being  inclosed.  It  is  made  of  beautiful  grained  ash,  trimmed  with  black  walnut, 
and  panelled  in  front  and  at  the  ends  with  fine  black  walnut  trimmings.  It  has  eight 
drawers,  of  varied  sizes,  while  the  flat  top  gives  ample  space  for  papers,  etc.  Enamelled 
cloth  covers  the  top. 


12.  The  Same,  made  of  Black  Walnut,  Billiard  Cloth  Top. 


13.  The  Brewer  Desk. 

(Size,  24  in.  by  60  inches.) 

This  desk  can  be  shipped  in  three  sections.  It  seems  complete  in  all  the  essential  requi- 
sites of  a  first-class  principal's  desk.  It  is  made  of  ash,  tastefully  panelled  and  trimmed 
with  fine  black  walnut  mouldings. 


14.  The  Same,  made  of  Black  Walnut. 


44 


TEACHERS'  DESKS. 


15.  Tremont  Principal's  Platform  Desk. 

(Size,  36  in.  by  108  inches.) 

This  is  an  elaborate  and  elegant  desk,  of  very  great  capacity.  Its  size  is  about  three 
feet  wide  by  nine  feet  long.  The  front  contains  closets  for  storing  the  books  of  the  pupils, 
thus  supplying  the  place  of  book-cases  for  an  entire  school.  The  doors  of  these  closets 
are  so  nicely  arranged  that  when  closed  they  will  not  be  observed. 

It  was  originally  designed  and  constructed  for  the  schools  of  Tremont,  N.  Y.,  credit 
being  due  to  Mr.  William  Herring,  of  the  School  Board,  and  Mr.  George  H.  Albro,  Prin- 
cipal of  School  No.  1. 

It  is  made  of  finely  grained  ash,  panelled  and  trimmed  with  black  walnut. 

The  bright  color  and  beautiful  grain  of  the  ash,  which  is  used  in  constructing  most  of 
our  teachers'  desks,  show  to  extra  advantage  in  this  desk.  It  is  finished,  as  usual  with  all 
our  work,  in  shellac,  and  grows  brighter  and  harder  with  age.  No  person  of  good  taste 
will  be  likely  to  select  for  school  furniture  such  woods  as  grow  dark  and  sombre. 


Rear  view  of   No.  15. 

Besides  the  ten  drawers  and  the  middle  place  for  records,  which  show  in  the  cut,  there 
are  two  large  book-boxes  under  the  lids.  For  the  purposes  intended  we  think  this  desk  has 
no  equal.  Its  appearance  would  be  creditable  to  any  first-class  school-room,  and  would 
harmonize  with  the  best  modern  ideas  of  school  furniture. 


16.  The  Same,  made  of  Black  Walnut  or  Mahogany. 


SCHOOL  OFFICERS'  DESKS,  ETC. 


17.    Desk  for  "State  Department  of  Instruction,"  Office  of  Board  of  Edu- 
cation, or  Trustees'  Room. 

18.  Same,  of  Black  Walnut,  Billiard  Cloth  Top. 

This  extensive  desk  is  required  in  cities  and  in  large  towns.  It  is  built  for  occupation 
on  both  sides.  It  has  many  compartments  and  drawers  to  accommodate  vast  business, 
with  ample  places  for  putting  away  records  and  account-books,  and  filing  many  papers.  It 
is  constructed  in  five  parts,  for  convenience  in  shipping  and  in  setting  up.  Being  made  to 
order,  its  size  will  be  varied  to  suit  the  demand. 


19.  "Commissioner's"  Desk,  Carved  Black  Walnut,  Enamelled  Cloth  Top. 

(Size,  23  in.  by  25  inches.) 

20.  Same.      Carved  Black  Walnut,  French  Polished,  Cloth  Top,  with  Gilt 

Border. 

This  desk  is  an  improvement  on  a  desk  which  has  been  greatly  admired.  It  is  a  beau- 
tiful and  convenient  article  of  office  or  household  furniture.  It  has  a  capacious  box  under 
the  lid  for  books  and  papers,  and  a  closet  on  each  side,  with  shelves,  etc.  It  is  panelled  on 
all  sides. 


46 


LIBRARY    CASES,    TABLES,    ETC. 


21.  The  Class-room  Library  Case. 

Size,  four  feet  high  above  the  brackets,  three  feet  four  inches  wide,  with  movable  shelves 
for  books.    Panelled  doors. 
Other  sizes  and  styles  made  to  order,  at  reasonable  prices. 


22.  The  Library  Table. 

Size,  three  feet  by  five  feet.    Four  drawers.    Made  of  selected  ash,  black  walnut  trim- 
mings, octagon  legs. 

23.  Same,  made  of  Black  Walnut,  Billiard  Cloth  Top. 

Other  sizes  and  stvles  made  to  order. 


TEACHERS'  TABLES. 


47 


24.  Teacher's  Table.     Plain  Top,  no  Drawer. 

(Size,  20  in.  by  28  inches.) 

25.  Teacher's  Table.     Plain  Top,  One  Drawer 

(Size,  24  in.  by  36  inches.) 

26.  Teacher's  Table.      Enamelled  Cloth  Top,  One  Drawer,  with  Lock   and 

Key  (like  Cut). 
(Size,  24  in.  by  36  inches.) 

27.  Same,  in  Black  Walnut,  Enamelled  Cloth  Top,  with  Gilt  Border. 


28.  Teacher's  Table.    Plain  Top,  Two  Drawers,  with  good  Locks  and  Keys. 

(Size,  24  in.  by  42  inches.) 

29.  Teacher's  Table.     Cloth  Top,  Two  Drawers,  with  Locks  and  Keys 

(like  Cut). 
(Size,  24  in.  by  42  inches.) 

30.  Teacher's  Table.     Cloth  Top,  Two  Drawers,  Black  Walnut. 

(Size,  26  in.  by  36  inches.) 

Any  size  or  style  to  order,  a,,  proportionate  prices. 


SCHOOL   FURNITURE. 

Home  Desks  for  Children  and  Adults. 


31.  A  neat  Home  Desk  for  Children,  black  walnut,  with  Lock  and  Key. 

32.  Ditto,  larger,  size  between  31  and  33  which  the  cuts  illustrate. 

33.  For  Young  Ladies — large,  with  interior  Compartments. 


34.  Is  a  pretty  and  convenient  desk,  with  large  drawei  in  lower  part.    The  upper  part 
contains  two  little  drawers,  and  several  compartments  for  books,  writing  materials,  etc. 
The  top  has  two  shelves  for  books,  ornaments,  etc.     The  lid  is  hinged,  and  closes  upward 
like  35. 

35.  Is  larger  and  more  elaborate,  having  in  addition  a  closet  underneath,  with  nicely 
panelled  doors.    Both  these  desks  are  ornamental  as  well  as  useful,  and  are  highly  appre- 
ciated by  ladies. 


SCHOOL   MATERIAL. 


The  Desk  Organ, 


(PATENTED.) 


36.  Complete  Teacher's  Desk  and  Double-Reed  Organ $1  f  O.OO. 

THIS  Teacher's  Desk  has  a  Double  Reed  ORGAN  attached,  so  that  it  does  not  interfere 
with  the  uses  of  the  Desk,  occupying  no  space  appropriated  to  books,  papers,  etc.,  while  the 
Organ,  by  turning  a  key,  can  be  drawn  out  all  ready  for  use,  as  shown  in  the  cut. 

Its  advantages  are :  1 .  Economy  of  Space,  no  more  being  required  than  for  the  desk  alono 
2.  Economy  of  cost ;  the  price  shows  this. 

The  Organ  is  made  by  Mason  &  Hamlin. 

Any  of  Mason  &  Hamlin's  School,  Household,  and  Church  Organs,  at  manufacturers' 
best  rates $55.OO  to  $75O.OO. 

Illustrated  Circular,  with  prices,  sent  on  application,  with  stamp. 


37.  Academy,  School,  and  Church  BULLS, 

in  great  variety,  from  the  best  Bell  Foundry  in  the  country.    Illustrated  Catalogue  sent  on 
application  with  stamp. 


50 


SCHOOL    MATERIAL. 


Portable   Book    Shelves, 

I,    The  Gardner  Patent  Book  Backs,  Walnut,  Plain  Ends, 


No. 


2. 
3. 
4. 

5. 

6. 

7. 

8. 

9. 
10. 
11. 
12. 


SIZE— WIDTH  12  INCHES,  HEIGHT  12  INCHES,  2  SHELVES— PRICE $0.70 

15  15         '        2  "  1.00 

IS  18         '        3  "  1.50 

21  21         '        3  "  1.80 

24  24         '        3  "  2.20 

27  27         '       3  "  2.85 

30  30         '3  "  3.65 

36  36         '        4  "  5.20 

34  48-5  "  6.45 

36  "        64         l        0  "  7.80 

36  "       76         •       7  " 9.65 


n. 


No.  13. 
14. 
15. 
16. 
17. 
18. 
19. 
20. 
21. 
22. 
23. 


The  Gardner  Patent  Portable  Book  Back,  Fancy  Ends 

(Like  cut). 

SIZE— WIDTH  12  INCHES,  HEIGHT  12  INCHES,  2  SHELVES— PRICE 

15        "        2 


$1.00 
1.3O 
1.8O 
2.15 
2.45 
3.20 
4.0O 
5.50 
6.90 
8.25 

10.25 


SCHOOL   MATERIAL. 


51 


Portable  Book  Shelves, 

Combined  with   Writing  Desks. 
Ill,   The  Patent  Book  Case  and  Portable  Writing  Desk, 

Plain  Ends. 

No.  24.  WIDTH  36  INCHES,  HEIGHT  6(>  INCHES,  6  SHELVES— PRICE , $11.75 

«  «       76       "        7        "  "     ••••   1*«75 


IV,    The  Book  Case  and  Writing  Desk  combined,  Fancy  Ends 

(Like  cut). 

No.  26.  WIDTH  36  INCHES,  HEIGHT  66  INCHES,  6  SHELVES—  PRICE  .....................  $12.5O 

"     27.        •»      36        "  "       76       "        7         "  «»      .....................    13.SO 

"WITH  LOCKS,  50  Cents  Extra. 

They  can  be  taken  apart  instantly,  without  turning  a  screw  or  drawing  a  nail,  and 
can  be  packed  as  compactly  for  transportation  as  a  few  short  boards.  And  again, 
they  may  be  put  up  for  use  almost  as  quickly.  For  students,  teachers,  libraries,  and 
many  general  uses,  they  must  prove  most  acceptable.  Teachers  and  students  being 
migratory,  will  readily  appreciate  their  advantages. 


52 


SCHOOL   MATERIAL. 


The  Teacher's  Lamp. 

The  studious,  faithful  teacher  requires  a  faithful  light  to  aid  him  in  his  preparation  for 
his  duties.  We  have  found  none  equal  to 

VM1    8ABWT    ©gftMAGN!,   OT    ©IRMAN    STUDENTS    LAMP, 

It  gives  a  superior,  steady  light,  and  with  ordinary  care  will  emit  neither  smell  nor  smoke. 
One-twelfth  or  one-eighth  of  a  heavier  oil — sperm,  lard,  or  olive — mixed  with  kerosene, 
makes  the  best  and  safest  oil.  Pratt's  Astral  Oil  is  recommended  for  use  in  this  lamp. 

Professor  Joseph  Henry,  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  Washington,  D.  C.,  considers 
"  it  the  safest  and  pleasantest  article  of  the  kind  he  has  ever  used.  It  gives  a  brilliant, 
unwavering  light,  very  agreeable  to  the  eye.  It  is  safe,  since  the  vapor  of  the  petroleum 
is  entirely  cut  off  from  the  flame,  the  reservoir  being  at  a  distance  from  the  burning  point, 
and  the  supply  tube  constantly  filled  with  the  liquid." 

These  lamps,  being  imported,  may  vary  in  price,  depending  upon  the  price  of  gold.    We 
give  prices  for  the  present  only  : 
No.  1. — BRASS  SLIDING  LAMP,  13  line  burner,  7  inch  shade,  and  chimney 

complete,     ........  $8  50 

No.  2.— BRASS  SLIDING  LAMP,  11  line  burner,  6  inch  shade,  and  chimney 

complete,     ........  7  50 

No.  1  a.— BRASS  SLIDING  LAMP,  double  burner,  7  inch  shades,  and  chimneys 

same  as  No.  1  single,          .  .  .  .  .  .  16  00 

No.  1  to.— GERMAN  SILVER  SLIDING  LAMP,  13  line  burner,  7  inch  shade, 

and  chimney,  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  16  00 

Box  and  packing  for  shipment  will  cost  $1.00  extra. 


SCHOOL  MATERIAL— PAET  III. 
PHYSICAL    EDUCATION. 


'Hens  Sana  in  Corpore  Sana." 


Our  Gymnastic  Apparatus 

Is  made  of  well-seasoned  wood,  varnished  and  polished.     Dumb-bells  and  Indian  Clubs 

are  made  of  maple ;  Wands  of  white  ash  or  black  walnut ;    Hand-rings  are  very  strongly 

made  of  three  sections — black  walnut,  cherry,  and  maple.     Besides  great  strength,  they 

have  the  merit  of  beautiful  appearance. 

Dumb-bells — four  sizes  :  PRICE  LIST. 

Nos.  1  and  2,  for  children per  pair,  $O.6O 

Nos.  3  and  4,  for  youths  and  adults "  .75 

Rings— two  sizes. 

No.  1,  for  children "  .75 

No.  2,  for  youths  and  adults "  .75 

Wands — in  required  lengths,  nicely  turned each,          .30 

same,  with  metallic  balls "  .75 

Indian  Clubs — five  sizes  of  short  clubs  : 

No.  1,  weight  about  2  pounds per  pair,     1.25 

No.  2,  3       "      «          1.50 

No.  3,  4       " «          1.75 

No.  4,  5       "      "          2.OO 

No.  5,  "  6       "      «          2.50 

Six  sizes  of  long  clubs  : 

No.  1,    7  to  8  pounds «          3.OO 

No.  2,  10  " »          4.OO 

No.  3,  12  "       «         4.50 

No.  4,  14  "       "         5.OO 

No.  5,  16  "       «          5.50 

No.6,20  "       «         6.OO 

Any  size  or  style  to  order.    Liberal  discount  on  quantities. 

Kehoe's  Book  on  use  of  Clubs,  illustrated 2.5O 

Croquet,  etc.,  etc. 


Gymnastic  Apparatus. 


A  PPARATUS  is  now  regarded  by  educators  almost  as  indispensable  in 
JLJL.  physical  training  as  agricultural  implements  are  in  successful  farming. 
The  demand,  however,  is  not  so  much  for  the  costly,  fixed  apparatus  of  the 
gymnasium,  as  for  a  few  light  and  simple  implements,  which  are  cheap  and 
easily  obtained;  which  may  be  used  with  equal  facility  under  cover,  or  in  the 
open  air — in  a  calisthenic  hall,  or  in  a  bedroom  ;  which  may  be  employed  by 
persons  of  all  ages,  either  individually  or  in  classes ;  and  which  insure 
generous  emulation  alike  in  the  family,  the  school,  and  the  gymnasium. 

The  four  pieces  of  apparatus  which  most  completely  fulfill  these  con- 
ditions, and  consequently  are  most  deservedly  popular,  are  Wands,  Dumb- 
tells,  Indian  Clubs,  and  Rings.  "With  these  an  almost  unlimited  number 
of  varied,  powerful,  and  graceful  movements  may  be  executed,  bringing  into 
play,  under  healthful  conditions,  every  muscle,  joint,  and  member  of  the 
human  body. 

How  should  this  apparatus  be  constructed,  with  reference  to  form,  size, 
and  material  ?  In  answering  this  important  question,  let  us  bear  in  mind 
the  fact  that  the  object  of  gymnastic  exercises  is  to  secure  beauty  of  form  and 
grace  of  movement,  as  well  as  muscular  strength ;  and  that  we  aim  not  so 
much  to  acquire  the  power  to  bear  heavy  burdens — the  power  important  for 
porters,  hod-carriers,  and  coal-heavers — as  for  the  qualities  required  in  the 
more  usual  vocations  of  life,  such  as  flexibility,  poise,  grace,  ease,  rapidity 
of  muscular  action,  and  a  general  diffusion  of  muscular  vigor. 

The  primary  object  of  gymnastic  apparatus  is  not  to  serve  as  a  test  of 
strength,  but  to  afford  facilities  for  exercise.  We  employ  it  to  secure  greater 
variety  and  precision  of  movement,  more  rapid  development,  and  prolonged 
interest. 

The  pieces  here  described  are  all  made  of  wood,  varnished  with  shellac, 
at  least  three  coats,  and  well  polished. 

Wands  furnish  an  extended  course  of  beautiful  and  peculiarly  effective 
exercises.  For  diversity  in  movements,  as  a  promoter  of  digestion,  and  as  a 
curative  for  dyspepsia,  the  wand,  properly  constructed,  is  not  surpassed  by 
any  other  piece  of  gymnastic  apparatus. 

The  wand  should  be  made  of  well  seasoned  white  ash  or  black  walnut, 
perfectly  straight  and  smooth,  seven-eighths  of  an  inch  thick  for  men  and 
women,  and  three-fourths  of  an  inch  for  boys  and  girls.  When  held  vertical 
by  the  side,  it  should  extend  from  the  floor  to  the  lobe  of  the  ear,  as  in 


PHYSICAL   EDUCATION. 


55 


O 


Fig.  x. 


Fig.  2. 


Fig.  1.  It  should  be  exactly  of  this  length,  as  a  large  majority  ol  the  most 
valuable  movements,  as  shown  in  Fig.  5,  can  not  be  well  executed  with 
a  shorter  one. 


Fig.  3- 


Fig.    4. 


56 


PHYSICAL   EDUCATION. 


Fig.  5- 

The  wand  is  sometimes  loaded  at  the  ends  with  metallic  balls — usually  cast 
iron,  well  japanned.  It  not  only  affords  an  almost  unlimited  number  and 
variety  of  movements  by  individuals,  but  also  a  most  interesting  and  extended 
course  of  combined  exercises  for  students,  arranged 
in  couples,  as  shown  in  Fig.  5. 

Dumb-bells  are  regarded  by  many  gymnastic 
instructors  as  incomparably  superior  to  any  other 
piece  of  apparatus,  as  a  means  of  physical  culture. 
Properly  constructed,  and  in  the  hands  of  an  adept, 
dumb-bells  go  beyond  their  usual  province,  and 
answer  the  purposes  of  Indian  clubs,  gymnastic 
rings,  parallel  bars,  a  wand,  a  foil, — in  short, 
almost  the  entire  apparatus  of  the  gymnasium. 

The  dumb-bell  most  approved  at  the  present 
time,  is  turned  from  wood.  Fig.  6  will  serve  as  a 
model.  As  will  be  seen,  the  handle  has  shoulders. 
It  is  long,  bulged  and  beaded  at  the  center,  and  well 
adapted  to  wrist  movements  (see  Fig.  T),  as  well 
as  affording  every  facility  for  free  and  easy  motions 
of  the  hand,  wrist,  and  forearm.  The  balls  are 
moderate  in  size,  beaded,  and  specially  con- 
structed with  reference  to  the  ball  grasp,  which 
adds  greatly  to  the  number  and  variety  of  its  uses. 
(See  Fig.  9.) 

Fig.  6. 


PHYSICAL    EDUCATION. 


57 


•  7- 


Indian  Clubs,  in  our  judg- 
ment, stand  first  in  excellence. 
No  other  piece  of  gymnastic 
apparatus  affords  so  many  facili- 
ties for  a  marked,  rapid,  and 
systematic  development — for  tso 
happy  a  combination  of  dash, 
daring,  and  skill :  no  other 
insures  so  absorbing  and  con- 
tinuous an  interest.  While  clubs 
enforce  to  a  wonderful  extent 


Fig.  8. 


the  simultaneous  activity  of  the  mental  and  physical  powers,  they  are  in 
the  beginning  accessible  to  the  meanest  capacity.  The  mastery  of  their 
alternate,  reciprocating,  and  double  movements,  their  beautiful  devices, 


C 


Fig.  9. 


58 


PHYSICAL    EDUCATION. 


n 


Fig.  10. 


and  their  endlessly  varied  and 
delicate  combinations,  would 
afford  employment  for  the  leisure 
hours  of  a  lifetime :  demanding 
the  union  of  those  superior,  innate 
qualities  which  insure  superiority 
in  billiards  and  chess.  No  other 
piece  of  apparatus  requires  more 
skill  in  its  construction.  The  poise 
should  be  so  adjusted  that,  when 
in  motion,  the  central  forces  may 
harmonize,  requiring  only  the 
guiding  will  of  the  gymnast. 

The  model  here  given  (Fig.  11) 
is  believed  to  be  superior  to  all 
others.  As  the  manipulations  in 
this  exercise  should  be  as  perfect, 


and  almost  as  delicate  and  complicated  as  those  of 
a  Thalberg,  or  an  Ole  Bull,  much  depends  on  the  construc- 
tion of  handle.  The  club  is  sometimes  held  with  the 
thumb  and  a  single  finger,  sometimes  with  the  whole 
hand,  and  sometimes  it  is  guided  merely  with  the  tips 
of  the  fingers.  In  this  model,  there  are,  for  practical  pur- 
poses, really  four  handles:  the  entire  handle  from  a  to  <?, 
the  space  between  a  and  c,  between  c  and  d,  and  above 
the  shoulder  at  e. 

This  model  answers  both  for 
long  clubs  and  for  short  ones. 
The  length  of  the  club  is  deter- 
mined by  the  length  of  the  arm. 
The  long  club,  when  held  upon 
the  arm  extended  horizontally, 
should  reach  to  the  point  of 
the  shoulder  where  the  arm  and 
shoulder  join,  as  in  Fig.  13. 
The  short  club  in  the  same 
position  should  extend  nearly 
two  inches  above  the  elbow. 

Rings  afford  opportunities  for 
so  many  graceful  positions  and 
effective  movements  in  combina- 
tion for  both  sexes,  and  persons 
of  all  ages  and  degrees  of 


Fig.  ii. 


PHYSICAL   EDUCATION. 


59 


Fig.  13. 


strength,  that 
they  are  justly 
classed  with 
the  most  de- 
sirable articles 

of  gymnastic  apparatus.  The  best  ring 
is  turned  from  three  sections  of  wood 
glued  together,  the  grain  running  in 
contrary  directions.  This  makes  them 
very  strong.  Light  and  dark  colored 
wood  in  alternate  sections,  highly 
polished,  make  very  handsome  rings. 
Our  apparatus,  devised  by  Prof.  J. 
Madison  Watson,  has  proved  very 
satisfactory  to  our  customers,  and  is 
having  very  large  demand  for  schools 
and  social  clubs.  Even  more  than 
dancing,  light  gymnastics  —  social 
gymnastics  would  be  a  better  name — 
may  be  called  the  poetry  of  motion. 


B 


Fig.  14. 


Possessing  none  of  the  objectionable  features  of  dancing,  and  liable  to  none 


Fig.  15. 

of  its  abuses,  these  exercises  combine  all  that  is  desirable  in  that  popular 
amusement — music,  rythmic  motion,  and  the  exhilaration  of  muscular 
activity — with  an  infinitely  greater  variety  of  movements.  They  are  at  once 
enjoyable  and  healthful.  The  foregoing  illustrations  are  from  Prof.  Watson's 
well-known  " Hand-book  of  Gymnastics." — (See  Price  List  on  53d.  page. 


60  PHYSICAL    EDUCATION. 

Croquet— Field  and  Parlor. 


FIELD  CEOQUET. 

1. — Substantially  good  set  for  the  school  grounds — made  of  maple,  in  a  ne"at 
and  durable  manner,  plain  finish.  Eight  balls  and  mallets,  regular  size, 
in  a  strong  wood  box,  with  book  of  directions price,  $4.50 

2. — Manufactured  of  rock  maple,  in  a  neat  and  durable  manner,  plain  finish. 

Full  size  and  number  of  parts,  in  a  neat  box 5.0O 

3. — Manufactured  of  rock  maple,  in  a  neat  and  durable  manner,  finished  in 

oil.  Bradley 's  patent  sockets  for  bridges.  Chestnut  box 8.OO 

4, — Rock  maple  mallet-heads,  banded;  rock  maple  patent  indexical  balls; 
plated  bridges,  with  Bradley's  patent  sockets;  record  dials,  polished; 
elegant  chestnut  box,  oil  finish 12.0O 

5. — Boxwood  mallet-heads,  banded ;  improved  linen  plaited  mallet-handles ;  box- 
wood patent  indexical  balls ;  plated  bridges,  with  patent  sockets ;  record 
dials.  Genuine  French  polish.  Elegant  chestnut  box,  oil  finish 20. OO 

6. — Boxwood  mallet-heads,  banded;  improved  linen  plaited  mallet-handles; 
patent  indexical  rubber-covered  balls ;  plated  bridges,  with  patent  sockets ; 
,  record  dials.  Elegant  chestnut  box,  oil  finish 25 .OO 

OAEPET  CEOQUET,  for  in-door  use, 

1. — Youth's;  4  mallets  and  4  balls,  turnposts  and  starting  pins,  10  arches, 

clips,  slate,  and  rules,  in  pine  box 4.OO 

2. — Same ;   in  walnut  box 6.OO 

3. — Maple;  8  mallets,  8  balls,  starting  and  return  posts,  10  arches,  clips,  rules, 

and  slate,  in  walnut  box 1O.OO 

4. — Boxwood ;  best  finish,  and  complete,  with  8  mallets,  8  balls,  starting  and 

return  posts,  10  arches,  clips,  rules,  and  slate,  in  walnut  box 11. OO 

This  list  of  apparatus  for  Physical  Education  is  necessarily  very  much 
abbreviated.  We  intend  to  supply  all  kinds  of  suitable  apparatus  for  the 
amusement  and  exercise  of  youths  and  adults— believing  that  the  proper 
development  of  the  physical  powers  is  no  less  important  than  the  cultivation 
of  the  intellect. 

Hence  "  books  of  sports,"  and  implements  for  Archery,  Base  Ball,  Cricket, 
Croquet,  Quoits,  and  all  other  aids  for  out-door  and  in-door  games  and  sports 
properly  belong  to  this  line  of  business. 

Another  catalogue,  now  in  preparation,  will  also  give  illustrations  of 
instructive  toys  for  boys  and  girls. 


SCHOOL  MATERIAL,— PAKT  IY, 
GLOBES,  etc. 


PAGE 

Atlases,  Charts,  etc.,  „  .  .  75 

Bible  Maps,  ---.....     75 

Celestial  Indicator,  -  -  .  .  .  „  .  .  7j 

Chart  and  Map  Support,         -  .....      75 

Concentric  Globes,  --....  72 

Franklin  &  Joslin  Globes — Terrestrial  and  Celestial,  -  .  -  -      65 

Franklin  Thirty  Inch  Globe,        -  ....  66 

Geographical  Charts,  -  -  -  -  .  .  -75 

Geoselenean,        -  .  ....  73 

Historical  Maps,        -  --  "---76 

Maps — Outline,  Physical,  Political,  et  al.,  .....  75 

Orrery,  or  Planetarium,  .  .  .  -      71 

Our  New  School  Globe,      -  .....  62 

Perce's  Magnetic  Globes,        -  ...      67 

Planispheres,        -  68 

Schedler's  School,  Scientific,  and  Library  Globes,  ...      63 

Season  Machines,  ....  73 

Slate  Globes,  .  .  .  -67 

Tellurians — Long's  Patent,  .....  70 


62 


SCHOOL    MATERIAL. 


Globes. 


"A  Good  Globe  is  as  essential  in  every  school-room  as  an  English  Dictionary,  or  a 
Blackboard." 

CUE  NEW  SCHOOL  GLOBE, 

Probably  the  principal  reason  why  so  few  of  our  schools  are  supplied  with  a  globe  is 

that  there  has  been  no  good  globe  to  be  ob- 
tained at  a  moderate  price. 

Our  new  five  inch  Terrestrial  Globe 
will  precisely  supply  this  want.  The  map  is 
new — clearly  and  finely  engraved — prepared 
expressly  for  taking  the  place  of  the  large  and 
expensive  globes.  The  "Grand  Divisions" 
are  boldly  colored.  The  water  is  white,  dis- 
tinctly showing  the  principal  Islands,  Penin- 
sulas, Capes,  Gulfs,  Bays,  etc.,  etc. 

It  is  mounted  in  a  light  and  durable  manner, 
strong  brass  mountings,  inclined  axis,  on  a 
neat  black-walnut  stand. 

Securely  packed  in  box  with  sliding  cover. 
Price $2.25 

A  Hemisphere  Globe  (made  by  cutting 
a  solid  five  inch  globe  through  the  Poles), 
showing  also  the  two  Hemispheres  on  a  flat 
surface,  will  be  found  a  great  convenience  to 
the  teacher.  The  two  parts  are  united  by  a 
brass  hinge.  Price $2.OO 


Schedler's   American  Globes — 12  Inches — Nos.  1,  3.  2. 


SCHOOL   MATERIAL. 

Globes. 


63 


"A  Good  Globe  is  as  essential  in  every  school-room  as  an  English  Dictionary,  or  a 

Blackboard." 

Schedler's  Globes  took  the 
First-Class  Prize  Medal  at  the 
Paris  Exhibition  in  1867,  and  at 
the  American  Institute  Fair  in 
New  York,  1869. 

They  have  been  introduced  in 
the  Public  Schools  of  New  York, 
and  many  other  cities,  and  are 
highly  recommended  by  Dr.  J. 
E.  Hilgard,  in  charge  of  the 
Coast  Survey  at  Washington; 
Prof.  C.  H.  F.  Peters,  of  the 
Litchfield  Observatory  of  Hamil- 
ton College,  New  York;  Prof.  S. 
M.  Capron,  of  the  High  School, 
Hartford,  Conn. ;  Prof.  R.  Von 
Schlagintweit,  the  celebrated 
traveller,  and  many  others. 

These  globes  are  superior  in 
accuracy,  durability,  and  in 
correctness  and  fullness  of  in- 
formation. The  latest  geo- 
,  graphical  discoveries,  territorial 
changes,  etc.,  are  laid  down  on 
the  maps. 

The  mode  of  manufacturing 
the  ball  is  Mr.  Schedler's  inven- 
tion, secured  by  patent.  It  com- 
bines a  perfect  spherical  form, 
with  great  strength  and  dura- 
bility. 

Schedler's  School  Globe,  20  inch.   (4.) 

1.  Schedler's  12  inch  Terrestrial,  plain  iron  stand $15»OO 

2.  Schedler's   12  inch  Terrestrial,  bronzed  stand,  full  meridian,  inclined 

axis 18.0O 

3.  Schedler's  12  inch  Terrestrial,  low  bronzed  frame,  with  horizon,  meridian, 

hour  circle,  and  quadrant 25.0O 

4.  Schedler's  20  inch  School,  bronzed  pedestal  frame,  full  meridian,  inclined 

axis 50.00 

5.  Schedler's  20  inch  School  (extra),  bronzed  pedestal  frame,  42  inches  high, 

horizon,  meridian  divided  in  half  degrees,  hour  circle  and  quadrant. . . .        65.OO 


64 


SCHOOL    MATERIAL. 


Globes. 


"A  Good  Globe  is  as  essential  in  every  school-room  as  an  English  Dictionary,  or  a 

Blackboard." 

Schedler's  Scientific 
Globes,  as  well  as  his  Libra- 
ry Globes,  distinctly  show 
the  course  of.  the  Gulf  stream, 
and  other  Oceanic  Currents, 
Deep-sea  Soundings,  the  lines 
of  Equal  Magnetic  Variation, 
of  Oceanic  Communication, 
and  of  Submarine  Telegraphs. 
These  globes  have  met  with  the 
most  flattering  reception,  and 
are  well  worthy  the  examina- 
tion of  all  interested  in  the  sub- 
ject. 

RECOMMENDATIONS. 

I  have  examined  your  twenty 
inch  Terrestrial  Globe,  and 
have  no  hesitation  in  commend- 
ing it  to  the  attention  of  all 
who  desire  a  superior  article  of 
the  kind,  either  for  school  or 
for  a  library. 

HENRY  BARNARD, 
Late  Commis'r  of  Education, 
Washington,  D.  C. 

As  an  object  of  art,  Sched- 
ler's 20  inch  Terrestrial  Globe 
is  really  beautiful,  and  for  the 
purpose  of  scientific  study  it 
could  hardly  be  improved. 

S.  M.  CAPRON, 
Principal  High  School, 
Hartford,  Conn. 
Schedler's  Library  Globe,  20  inch,     (8.) 

6.  Schedler's  20  inch  Scientific,  bronzed  pedestal  frame,  with  full  meridian 

and  inclined  axis $60.0O 

7.  Schedler's  20  inch  Scientific,  bronzed  pedestal  frame,  42  inches  high, 

with  horizon,  meridian  divided  in  half  degrees,  hour  circle,  and  quad- 
rant         75.OO 

8.  Schedler's  20  inch  Library,  fine  bronzed  pedestal  frame,  42  inches  high, 

with  horizon,  brass  meridian  divided  in  half  degrees,  hour  circle,  quad- 
rant, and  magnetic  needle.    It  is  a  useful  and  beautiful  ornament  for  the 

library  or  parlor 175.0O 

Celestial  Globes  of  same  styles  and  same  sizes,  at  same  prices,  are  in 
preparation. 

Packing  boxes  for  shipping  these  globes  are  supplied  for  the  20  inch  globes, 
each , 4.50 

For  the  12  inch,  each , 2.5O 


SCHOOL    MATERIAL, 

Globes. 


65 


The  Franklin  &  Joslin  Globes  have  been  long  known,  and  highly  esteemed.  The 
6,  10,  12,  and  30  inch  globes  have  been  recently  re-engraved,  and  the  following  important 
additions  and  corrections  made. 

Pacific  Railroad ;  French  Submarine  Cable ;  Alaska,  Sitka,  and  all  territories  of  which 
the  correct  bounderies  can  be  obtained ;  the  present  Russian,  Prussian,  and  Austrian 
bounderies;  important  places,  rivers,  lakes,  mountains,  especially  in  Africa  and  New 
South  Wales,  and  the  correct  names  of  countries  that  have  been  changed  recently. 


The  10  inch  Terrestrial  and  Celestial  Globes  will  be  found  of  good  service  in 
schools  and  families,  to  illus- 
trate Geography  and  Astron- 
omy. The  Terrestrial  gives 
the  boundaries  in  the  United 
States  ard  Territories,  from 
the  latest  and  best  authorities, 
and  exhibits  the  boundaries  of 
other  countries  as  laid  down 
by  the  most  eminent  Geog- 
raphers. 
The  12  inch  Terrestrial  and  Celestial 

Globes  are  the  most  popular  for  the  larger  Schools 

and  Academies.    They  are  not  surpassed  in  accu 

racy  and  beauty  of  finish  by  any  other  globe  of  its  diameter. 
We  believe  that  the  use  of  globes  in  teaching  has  been  undervalued.    For  example, 

many  pupils  get  the  idea  from  the  map  that  Australia  and  New  Zealand  are  at  the  two 

extremes  of  the  earth,  instead  of  learning  that  they  are  near  neighbors,  no  farther  apart 

than  Ne^v  York  and  Cuba.    It  is  essential  that  every  pupil  should  receive  lessons  from  the 

globe,  as  well  as  the  map. 


66 


SCHOOL   MATERIAL. 


Globes. 


The  Franklin  16  inch  Globes  (Terrestrial  and  Celestial),  are  especially  valuable 
globes.  They  are  very  finely  engraved,  and  are,  unquestionably,  more  useful  for  daily 
reference  than  a  map,  showing,  at  a  glance,  the  relative  positions  of  different  countries, 
their  boundaries,  and  theif  latitude  and  longitude. 


The  Franklin  30  inch  Globe  (Terrestrial  only)  is  very  plainly  engraved,  and  hand- 
somely mounted  on  a  solid  Mahogany  frame.  It  is  the  largest  ever  made  in  this  country, 
and  presents  quite  an  imposing  appearance ;  it  is  appropriate  for  public  rooms,  literary 
institutions,  hotels,  saloons  of  steamers,  as  well  as  for  the  large  schools  and  colleges. 

"FRANKLIN"  GLOBE:  SIZES  AND  PEICES. 

6  inch  wood  frame  (no  quadrant) per  pair  $18*OO 

9i  inch  wood,  semi-frame  (no  quadrant) "          24. OO 

10   inch  wood  frame  (with  quadrant) "          36. OO 

10  inch  bronze  frame         •»                f "          40.OO 

12  inch  wood,  semi-frame  (no  quadrant) "          34.OO 

12  inch   wood  frame   (with  quadrant. — 44. OO 

12   inch  low  bronze  frame          "              50. OO 

12   inch  bronze  pedestal  frame  '*         (case  and  packing,  each  globe  extra,  $1715)  75. OO 

16  inch  wood  frame                   "                  "          "                            "          1.60  8O.OO 

16  inch  bronze  pedestal  frame  "                                                                      2.00  125.00 
30   inch  Terrestrial,  quadrant  and  compass,  on  Mahogany  frame,  with  casters, 

(case  and  packing,  $8  extra) "        275.00 

Terrestrial  and  Celestial,  separate,  at  half-price  "  per  pair,"  and  quadrant  charged  extra. 


SCHOOL    MATERIAL. 


67 


Globes. 


Perce's  Magnetic  Globes  are  peculiar  in  illustrating  gravitation.  They  are  metal- 
lic, and  by  the  use  of  magnetized  objects,  repre- 
senting Men  of  different  races,  Animals  of  different 
climes,  Light-houses,  Steamers,  Ships,  the  actual 
living,  moving  world,  with  much  of  its  most 
interesting  and  instructive  phenomena,  is  presented 
in  miniature  to  the  mind  of  the  pupil. 

STYLES  AND  PRICES. 

Five  inches  in  diameter,  plain  stand $6. OO 

Five  inches  in  diameter,  semi-meridian 8 .OO 

Seven  inches  in  diameter,  plain  stand 1 2. OO 

Seven  inches  in  diameter,  semi-meridian 1 5.OO 

Seven  inches  in  diameter,  full  meridian 20.OO 

Twelve  inches  in  diameter,  plain  stand 20. OO 

Twelve  inches  in  diameter,  semi-meridian ....  25.  OO 

Twelve  inches  in  diameter,  full  meridian 35.0O 

One  dozen  magnetic  objects,  representing  Men 
of  different  races.  Ships,  Steamers,  Light-houses, 
and  various  Animals,  and  Mrs.  Smith's  Globe 
Manual,  accompany  each  globe  without  additional 
cost 

They  are  securely  packed  for  shipment. 


Slated  Globes  are  now  finding  a  place, 
hitherto  unoccupied,  in  every  grade  of  school,  from 
Primary  to  University.  Their  varied  uses  as 
"  Spherical  Blackboards,"  make  them  as  much  a 
necessity  to  intelligent  teaching  as  common  flat 
blackboards. 

If  for  no  other  purpose  than  for  laying  a  sure 
foundation  for  a  right  understanding  of  Geography, 
they  are  entitled  to  first  rank  in  school  apparatus.  With  them  the  teacher  of  Geography 
may  begin  objective  instruction  at  the  outset,  showing  the  things  themselves,  not  inaccur- 
ate pictures  which  the  well-trained  mind  may  imagine  to  represent  them.  Pupils  thus 
learn  not  merely  names  of  geographical  lines,  but  what  they  are,  what  they  arc  for,  and  how 
to  draw  them;  and  more,  how  to  draw  by  them.  ^Tap-drawing  becomes  intelligent 
work,  not  mere  mechanical  transferring  of  unmeaning  marks  from  one  paper  to  another. 

Multitudes  of  facts  and  phenomena  can  be  illustrated  and  explained  so  simply  and 
clearly  that  any  child  can  understand  them.  The  most  obscure  theorems  and  problems 
of  Spherical  Geometry,  Trigonometry,  and  Navigation  become,  when  studied  in  connection 
with  the  Sphere,  perfectly  intelligible. 

As  now  made,  these  Globes,  or  Spherical  Blackboards,  are  an  improvement  of  the  original  inven- 


tion  of  Professor  Shepard.    Size?  and  prices : 

No.  1.— On  handle,  very  convenient,  size    4  inches  in  diameter. . 

2. — Brass  meridian,  wood  frame,  6 

3. —    "  "  "  Q 


4.—    "  "         bronzed  frame,     12 

5.—    "  "  «  ]5 

6.— High  bronzed  frame,  with  casters,  18 


$1.50 

5.OO 

9.OO 

ISoOO 

2O.OO 

30,00 


68  SCHOOL   MATERIAL. 

The  Pocket  Planisphere. 

The  simplest  of  all  apparatus  for  "Easy  Star  Studies,"  is  illustrated,  full  size,  in  the 

accompanying  cuts. 


The  Pocket  Planisphere  is  the  Cheapest  and  most  convenient  means  ever 
devised  for  Identifying  the  Fixed  Stars. 

It  consists  of  (a.)  A  light,  strong  card,  about  four  inches  square,  carrying  an  accurate 
circumpolar  Star-map,  surrounded  by  a  circle  of  the  months  subdivided  for  the  days ;  and 
( b.)  A  smaller  circular  card,  carrying  the  hours  of  the  day,  and  an  open  space,  representing 
the  horizon.  These  two  cards  are*  attached  at  the  centre,  so  as  to  turn  one  on  the  other. 

This  form — a  simplification  of  BAUDIN'S  improvement  of  the  original  Planisphere 
invented  by  the  celebrated  astronomer  BODE,  in  1786 — answers  the  same  purpose  as  the 
large  Planispheres,  costing  twelve  times  as  much.  In  addition  to  cheapness,  this  Plani- 
sphere has  the  further  advantage  of  being  so  small  and  light  as  to  be  easily  carried  in  the 
pocket. 

.The  Pocket  Planisphere  is  used  as  follows :  To  bring  to  view  the  principal  Stars  visi- 
ble at  any  given  night  and  hour,  turn  the  upper  card  so  as  to  bring  the  hour  of  observation 
to  correspond  with  the  given  time  of  year  on  the  lower  card.  The  open  space  will  then 
exhibit  the  stars  of  the  first  and  second  magnitudes  above  the  horizon  at  the  specified  time. 


SCHOOL   MATERIAL. 


The  Pocket  Planisphere. 


69 


If  the  card  be  held  face  downward  above  the  head  of  the  observer,  with  the  N.  point  toward 
the  north,  it  will  exhibit  the  stars  in  tneir  positions  relative  to  the  real  horizon. 

The  stars  of  the  first  magnitude  are  numbered  on  the  Star-map,  in  the  order  of  their 
brilliancy,  from  1  to  15.  The  key  to  the  identification  of  the  stass  is  given  on  the  back  of 
the  Planisphere. 

Price Prepaid,  by  mail,  3O  cents. 


Maltby's  Improved  Correct  Planisphere — diameter  about  15  inches,  mounted 

in  a  superior  style — Imported — price, $5.0O. 

[The  publication  of  the  Pocket  Planisphere  induced  a  certain  charlatan  to  demand  from 
its  publishers  the  payment  of  money  for — say,  an  infringement  of  his  fancied  rights.  His 
demands  not  being  satisfied,  he,  aided  by  a  peculiar  affidavit  from  one  Barnes,  not  un- 
known to  fame  (?),  began  suit  for  an  injunction  in  defence  of  his  "peculiar  interests''  in 
this  little  instrument,  nearly  a  century  dd.  Ot  course  he  got  no  "  injunction"  ;  but  the 
court  got  some  novel  lessons  in  astronomy.] 


70 


SCHOOL    MATERIAL. 


Long's  Patent  Tellurian. 


This  apparatus  took  the  first  medal  and  diploma,  at  the  great  fair  of  the  American  Insti- 
tute, in  1869,  and  has  recently  been  adopted  by  the  Board  of  Education,  of  New  York. 

Explanation. — S,  represents  the  Sun ;  E,  the  Earth ;  M,  the  Moon ;  I,  I,  the  Indicator, 
supported  on  the  pivot  arm ;  C,  its  connecting  rod ;  F,  its  joint,  which  may  be  unscrewed  ,- 
P,  the  Earth's  pointer ;  N,  the  Sun's  pointer. 

It  is  calculated  for  every-day  use  in  all  schools  where  Geography  is  taught,  and  the  rela- 
tions of  the  Earth  to  the  Sun  and  Moon  need  to  be  illustrated. 

It  will  commend  itself  to  the  favorable  judgment  of  teachers,  because  of  the  following 
considerations : 

1.  SIZE. — The  Earth  is  represented  by  a  FIVE-INCH  globe,  which  makes  all  the  illustra- 
tions on  so  large  a  scale,  that  they  can  be  easily  seen  by  a  class.     The  Earth  may  also  be 
used  separately  as  a  globe. 

2.  ACCURACY. — It  is  operated  by  gearing,  and  moves  regularly,  and  with  certainty. 
The  Indicator  shows,  not  only  the  limit  of  day  and  night,  but  also  the  Meridian,  the 
Plane  of  the  Ecliptic,  and  the  part  of  the  Earth  to  which  the  Sun  is  vertical  on  any  day, 
all  with  scientific  precision. 

3.  DURABILITY. — It  has  no  appearance  of  a  toy,  or  a  fragile  instrument.    Every  part 
is  of  good  size  and  strongly  made.    It  is,  therefore,  always  ready  for  use  at  a  moment's 
notice,  and  pupils  may  safely  handle  it  to  any  reasonable  extent. 

A  circular  of  the  illustrations  shown  by  it  will  be  sent  oil  application,  with  stamp. 

Price,  best  style  brass  mounting,  boxed $30.00 

A  key,  giving  full  description,  is  included  without  charge. 


SCHOOL   MATERIAL.  71 

Bryant's  Celestial  Indicator. 


THIS  is  a  new  apparatus  for  facilitating  the  study  of  astronomy.  It  is  intended  to 
illustrate  clearly  to  children  and  to  adults  the  various  phenomena  of  the  heavenly  bodies  : 
the  motion  of  the  earth  around  the  sun,  and  the  changes  of  the  seasons  ;  the  earth's  axial 
motion ;  the  precession  of  the  equinoxes ;  nutation ;  tides ;  eclipses,  both  solar  and  lunar ; 
the  change  of  the  pole  star ;  changes  in  the  declination  and  right  ascension  of  stars  ;  the 
difference  between  the  siderial  and  tropical  years ;  the  retrogradation  of  the  signs  of  the 
zodiac ;  the  revolution  of  the  moon's  nodes,  etc.,  etc. 

Accompanying  the  apparatus  is  a  short  Treatise  on  Astronomy,  descriptive  of  the  same, 
and  illustrating  how  to  use  the  instrument.  An  hour's  time  will  enable  the  teacher  to 
become  familiar  with  the  subject  and  with  the  instrument,  and  impart  more  information 
by  illustration,  with  the  INDICATOR,  than  is  usually  gained  by  pupils  during  theii 
entire  course. 

The  apparatus  is  rnade  of  brass  ;  is  simple  and  durable  in  construction  ;  not  liable  to 
get  out  of  order.  It  occupies  about  a  cubic  foot,  and  is  carefully  boxed  for  shipment  to 
any  part  of  the  country. 

PRICE,    Lacquered,  -  $30.0O 

Nickel   Plated,    -  40.00 


Among  the  many  favorable  opinions  received,  are  the  following  : 

"The  Celestial  Indicator,  invented  and  constructed  by  Mr.  Henry  Bryant,  if?  a  Pimple  appar- 
atus which  illustrates  with  great  clearness  many  important  astronomical  phenomena.  I  am  of 
opinion  that  it  well  deserves  a  place  in  our  schools,  where  the  elements  of  astronomy  are  taught 
and  I  know  of  no  other  similar  apparatus,  now  in  use,  that  contains  such  an  amount  of  accurate 
illustration,  at  so  smaH  a  price. 

"JOHNBROCKLESBY, 

"  Professor  of  Mathematics  and  Natural  Philosophy, 
"  in  Trinity  College,  Hartford,  Conn." 


"  I  desire  to  recommend  it,  unhesitatingly,  to  the  attention  of  ail  interested  in  astronomy,  par- 
ticularly teachers.  Mr.  Bryant's  apparatus  heing  quite  unique,  and  different  from  all  others, 
deserves  a  place  in  every  good  collection  of  scientific  apparatus,  on  its  own  peculiar  merits. 

"  S.  M,  CAPRON, 
"Principal  of  H.  P.  N.  S.,  Hartford,  Conn." 


72 


SCHOOL   MATERIAL. 


Williamson's  Concentric  Celestial  and  Terrestrial 

Globes. 


These  Globes  present  to  the  mind  of  the  learner  a  faithful  representation  of  the  relations 
of  the  earth  to  the  heavens,  while  all  the  geographical  and  astronomical  problems  are 
solved  with  great  simplicity  and  perspicuity. 

The  Celestial  Glebe  consists  of  two  hollow  hemispheres  of  glass,  held  in  position  by  a 
brazen  equinoctial,  which  is  graduated  into  degrees  and  hours.  Within  this  hollow  globe 
is  an  ordinary  Terrestrial  Globe,  whose  diameter  is  about  one-half  that  of  the  Celestial 
Globe,  both  globes  turning  on  a  common  axle  and  having  a  common  centre,  but  so 
arranged  that  either  may  be  revolved  at  pleasure,  independent  of  the  other,  by  means  of 
milled  heads  at  the  Northern  and  Southern  extremities  of  the  axle. 

On  a  platform  attached  to  the  tripod  is  a  mariner's  compass,  by  the  aid  of  which  the 
globe  may  be  placed  in  its  proper  position. 

On  the  inner  surface  of  the  Celestial  Globe  the  stars  of  the  first,  second,  third,  and  fourth 
1  magnitudes  are  gilded ;  the  ecliptic,  colures,  meridians,  and  parallels  laid  down  ;  and  the 
outlines  of  the  constellation  figures,  with  their  names,  are  artistically  painted,  not,  how- 
ever, so  as  to  obscure  the  Terrestrial  Globe  within. 

Price,  with  a  "  Manual  of  Problems  on  the  Globes," 


SCHOOL   MATERIAL. 


73 


Moore's  Geoselenean 


Moore's  Geoselenean  is  a  new  instrument  intended  to  illustrate  the  principal 
motions  and  phenomena  of  the  Solar  System  much  more  perfectly,  its  in- 
ventor claims,  than  with  the  Planetarium  or  Tellurian.  It  is  designed  by 
John  G.  Moore,  M.  S.,  Teacher  and  Lecturer  in  Friends  Central  High 
School.  A  printed  description  of  18  pages  accompanies  each  instrument. 
Price 

The  Tellurian,  or  Season  Machine,  shows  the  Sun,  Earth,  and  Moon,  with 

the  phenomena  of  the  Seasons.     Improved  geared,  brass,  with  compass  and 

i         burnished  Sun.     Price  . . 


$10.00 


25.00 


The  School  Orrery,  or  Planetarium,  represents  the  Planets  in  their  regu- 
lar order.     Best,  brass.     Price 17.OO 

Second  quality  material  and  finish 15.OO 

Common,  and  wood  in  place  of  brass 12.OO 


SCHOOL    MATERIAL. 


The  Tellurion-Globe 


This  instrument  (the  invention  of  J.  L.  Naish,  B.A.)  solves  astronomical  problems  with 
facsimile  illustrations,  giving  (with  exact  amounts),  a  complete  analysis  of  the  Equation  of 
Time,  and  otherwise  surpasses  the  ordinary  globe  both  in  facility  of  use  and  general  scope. 

EXTRACTS  FROM  TESTIMONIALS.— "  Invaluable  to  lecturers  and  teachers."— SIR  ROD- 
ERICK MURCHISON,  Pres.  of  British  Geographical  Soc.  "  Much  more  complete  than  any  former 
means  in  use.  The  Equation  of  Time  is  made  perfectly  intelligible."— REV.  DR.  WOOLLEY, 
Director  of  Education,  to  British  Admiralty.  "  Shows  with  clearness  the  solutions  of  geographical 
and  astronomical  questions."— COM.  P.  F.  SANDS,  Supt.  V.  S.  Naval  Observatory.— Official  Report. 
"Has  great  merits;  the  two  causes  in  the  Equation  of  Time  are  very  clearly  shown."— LT.  COMDR. 
J.  A.  HO  WELL,  U.  S.  Navy,  Head  of  Dept.  of  Astronomy  and  Navigation,  U.  S.  Naval  Academy,  , 
Annapolis.  "Admirable  mechanical  combination— simple  but  effective  instrument."— PROF. 
SAMUEL  MORSE.  "  Very  beautiful  and  ingenious."— W.  G.  PECK,  Prof  .  Astronomy,  Columbia 
College.  "  A  very  ingenious  invention,  and  elicited  the  admiration  of  &\l."—Athenceum,  May  9, 1868. 

Price..  .    $80.00 


(Special  Geographical  List.)  75 

ATLASES,  CHARTS,  GLOBES,  MAPS,  ETC. 


C 


Adjustable  Chart  and  Map  Support,  Price 

The  cut  pretty  fully  shows  the  construction  of 
the  support.  The  standard  is  grooved  to  sus- 
tain a  movable  "T."  the  cross-piece  of  whict 
bears  two  sliding  arms,  provided  with  hooks, 
for  sustaining  the  map  or  chart.  The  SUPPORT 
is  raised  or  lowered  by  means  of  a  knob,  the  po- 
sition of  which  is  indicated  by  the  dotted  line 
from  A.  This  knob  also  governs  a  spring  which 
holds  the  "  T"  in  place.  The  cut  shows  the  top 
raised  one  notch  and  the  arms  slightly  extended 
to  receive  the  large  map  shown  by  the  dotted 
outlines.  It  will  aa  nicely  support  the  largest 
map  as  the  smallest  chart,  and  is  so  stiff  and  firm 
that  some  are  using  it  for  a  blackboard  support. 

The  merit  of  this  STTPPOKT  cannot  be  consid- 
ered relatively,  for  there  is  nothing  else  like  it. 
It  is  the  sole  occupant  of  the  field ;  and  it  an- 
swers its  purpose  perfectly.  Setting  aside  its 
convenience,  it  must  commend  itself  to  every 
teacher  on  the  score  of  economy.  It  will  save 
its  cost  in  a  single  year  by  preventing  the  neces- 
sity of  subjecting  maps  to  the  soiling  incident  to 
their  exposure  on  the  walls. 

LTL  AS— COLTON'S— General,  Geographical,  Statistical,  and  Historical.  200  Maps  and  Plans. 

Imperial  Folio.  Cloth,  morocco  backs $20  00 

MITCHELL'S— New  General.  98  Maps  and  Plans,  with  valuable  statistical  tables.  Folio, 

cloth,  morocco  backs 11  00 

OF  THE  UNION,  with  all  the  States  and  Territories.  States  colored  in  counties— Rail- 
roads and  principal  towns  located— Populations,  etc  3  00 

HARTS  :— WARREN'S  PHYSICAL  AND  OUTLINE.    14  Plates  on  seven  boards.    The 

Set  in  portfolio,  with  hand-book    18  00 

POLITICAL  AND  OUTLINE.    For  Common  Schools.    8  in  series,  on  muslin 1000 


G 


LOBES  :— "FRANKLIN."    Terrestrial  or  Celestial,  separate,  at  half  price  "  per  pair,"  and 
quadrant  extra. 

5  in.  Terrestrial,  plain  stand,  new  map each    2  25 

6  in.  wood,  semi-frame  (no  quadrant)   per  pair  10  00 

6  in.  wood  (full)  frame       do  do       18  00 

9}  in.  wood,  semi-frame,  no  quadrant do       24  00 

10  in.  wood  frame  with  quadrant do       3600 

10  in.  bronze,  frame  do .. do       4000 

12  in.  wood  frame  do  do       44  00 

12  in.  low  bronze  frame         do  do       50  00 

12  in.  bronze  pedestal  frame   do  (case  and  packing,  each  globe  extra,  $1.75 . .      do       75  00 

16  in.  wood  frame  do  do  do  do    1.50         do       80  00 

16  in.  bronze  pedestal  frame  do  do  do  do    2.00         do     125  00 

30  in.  Terrestrial,  quadrant  and  compass,  on  mahogany  frame,  with  casters  (case  and 

packing  $8  extra) each  275  00 


20  00 
25  00 


rLOBES  :— PERCE'S  MAGNETIC,  Terrestrial,  each- 
Sin,  plain  stand $600    I    12  in.  plain  stand 

5  in.  semi-meridian 8  00    |    12  in.  semi-meridian 

7  in.  plain  stand 12  00        12  in.  full  meridian 

7  in,  semi-meridian 15  00    |    12  in.  complete,  high  stand,  hour  circle,  etc.  76  00 

18  Magnetic  Objects,  representing  the  Races,  Animals,  Ships,  Light-houses,  etc.,/rc«  with  each  Globe. 


76  Atlases,  Charts,  Globes,  Maps,  &c. —  Continued. 

OLATE    GLOBES.     Invaluable  in  "OBJECT  TKACHING,"  MATHEMATICAL  GEOGRAPHY,  &c 

No.  1.— On  handle,  very  convenient,  size  4  in.  diameter $1  50 

2. — Brass  meridian,  wood  frame,           6  in.       do 6  00 

3.—          do.                    do.                   9  in.       do 900 

4.—          do.             bronzed  frame,     12  in.       do 1500 

5.—          do.                    do.                 15  in.       do 2000 

6.— High  bronzed  frame,  with  castors,  18  in.       do 30  00 

iVl AP   OF  AMERICA.    Our  whole  Country,  large  scale,  72  In.  x  80 .*.... $10  00 

UNITED  STATES  OP  AMERICA,  from  Ocean  to  Ocean,  21  in.  x  87 8  00 

D 

1  HYSICAL    AND    POLITICAL.     GUYOT'S  NEW  WALL-MAPS. 

No.  1  .—PRIMARY  SERIES— on  Muslin,  in  Portfolio.    Sold  in  sets $18  00 

United  States  in  sections size  48  in.  x  60  I  Europe 24  in.  x  36 

Hemispheres  do.  36in.x48    Asia 24in.x36 


North  America       do.  24  in.  x 

South  America        do.  24  in.  x  36 

Central  Europe       do.  24  in.  x  36 


Afriea 24  in.  x ! 

Oceanica 24  in.  x ! 

World  (Mercator's  Proj.) 24in.x; 


No.  3_THE  COMMON  SCHOOL  SERIES.    Packed  in  a  neat  box.    Per  set $25  00 

Length  of  Roller.     Depth  of  Map.  Length  of  Roller.  Depth  of  Map. 


The  United  States 64  inches.  48  inches. 

The  Hemisphere 53    "         33 

North  America 28    "         32 

South   America 28    "         32 

Africa 28    "         32 


Asia 33  inches.  25  inches. 

The  World  (Mer.  Proj.) 36      "         25 

Central  Europe 36      "         25 

Europe 36      "          25 

Australia  and  Oceanica 36      "          25 


No.  3.TJNTERMEDIATE  SERIES,  on  Cloth  and  Rollers,  sold  singly  or  in  sets. 


United  States.... size  48in.x60 $4  00 

Hemispheres  60  in.  x  72 7  50 

North  America  48  in.  x  60 450 

South  America  48  in.  x  60 350 


Europe size  48  in.  x  60 $4  50 

Asia      .  48  in.  x  60 500 

Africa  48  in.  x  60 450 

Oceanica  48  in.  x  60 500 


No.  4.— LARGE  SERIES,  on  Cloth  and  Rollers,  sold  singly  or  in  sets. 

The  World,  Mercator's  Projection— size  72  in.  x  120 $12  00 


United  States. . .  .size  72  in.  x  96 $8  00 

North  America  60  in.  x  72 650 

South  America  60  in.  x  72 650 

Central  Europe  72  in.  x  96 8  50 


Europe size  72  in.  x  96 $8  00 

Asia  72  in.  x  96 10  00 

Africa  62  in.  x  72 650 

Oceanica  48  in.  x  60 500 


Key  to  Guyot's  Maps 100 

No.  5.— CLASSICAL,  on  Cloth  and  Rollers.    ROMAN  EMPIRE,  72  in.  x  84 $15  00 

ANCIENT  GREECE  (including  City  of  Athens)  72  in.  x  84 15  08 

ITALIA,  including  Map  of  City  of  Ancient  Rome,  72  in.  x  84 15  00 

\-7UTLINE    OTAPS. 

CORNELL'S,  13  maps  on  muslin,  in  portfolio,  and  Key 15  00 

MITCHELL'S  New  Outline.  7  maps  on, muslin,  in  portfolio,  and  Key 10  00 

PELTON'S,  72  in.  x  85,  on  cloth  and  rollers.    Complete  set  2600 

do.                do.         on  heavy  paper.                     do 1500 

Key  to  Pelton's  Outline  Maps 75 


H 


B, 


ISTORIC  AL.    Kiepert's  large  Mural  Maps  of  Ancient  History. 

ROMAN  EMPIRE,  67  in.  x  103 $12  00 

ANCIENT  ITALY,  72  in.  x  80 1100 

ANCIENT  GREECE,  70  in.  x  84 9  50 

WORLD,  at  time  of  Persian  and  Macedonian  Empire,  48  in.  x  96 8  00 

THE  ENVIRONS  OP  ROME,  38  in.  x  45  (all  on  Cloth  and  Rollers) 4  00 


>IBLE   MAP.    Map  of  the  Lands  mentioned  in  the  Bible.    74in.  x  52 $750 

Area  embraced  includes  both  New  Testament  and  Old  Testament  countries,  taking  in  Rome  on  the 
West,  Egypt  on  the  South,  and  the  mouth  of  the  Euphrates  on  the  East.  Lettering  is  bold  and  easily 
read  from  every  part  of  a  class-room.  It  gives  ancient  and  modern  names  of  towns,  rivers,  mountains, 
etc.  Routes  of  St.  Paul  in  his  missionary  tours  are  plainly  indicated  by  distinct  colored  lines.  All 
missionary  stations  are  shown  by  spots  of  color,  thus  adding  a  very  interesting  feature. 


ITAJSCELLANEOUS. 


Apgar's  Geographical  Drawing  Book 94 

Apgar's  Map  Drawing  Cards.    Complete  set,  in  envelope 13 

do.                     Superior  quality 25 

Guyot's  Eureka  Slated  Map  Drawing  Cards.    Complete  set,  in  portfolio 1  50 

Paper  Map  Drawing  Cards.                                do.              do 75 

Geographical  Definitions.    Illustrated,  on  chart,  34  in.  x  44 4  00 

Geographical  Cards  (six  sheets  on  boards),  24  in.  x  31 6  00 

Geographical  Dictionary :  Lippincott's  Pronouncing  Gazetteer  of  the  World 10  00 

Historical  Chart  (Lyman's),  and  Key 2  60 

Stream  of  Time,  or  Chart  of  Universal  History,  32  in.  x  43 6  00 

E-XT-BOOKS    ON   GEOGRAPHY,  of  all  kinds,  supplied  AT  THB  PUBLISHERS1  WHOLK 
SALE  BATES.     Sent  by  Mail,  postage  prepaid,  at  retail  prices. 


SCHOOL  MATERIAL —PART  Y. 
BLACKBOARDS,  OBJECT-TEACHING  AIDS,  etc. 


PAGE 

Abacus,  or  Numeral  Frame,  84 

Alphabet  Blocks,  Charts,  etc.,  -  -      83 

Aids  to  Neatness,  -  -  90 

Aids  to  School  Discipline,  -      92 

Arithmetical  Solids,        -  85 

Barometers,  .  -      89 

Blackboard  Easels,  Supports,  etc.,  80 

Blackboard  Kubbers,  -  -     81 

Call  Bells,  .  86 

Clocks  for  Schools,     -  -      88 

Color  Cubes,  -  84 

Compasses  and -Crayons,  for  Blackboards, 

Cone,  Dissected,     - 

Crayon  Holders,  Dividers,  and  Pencil  Holders, 

Cube  Boot  Blocks, 

Dissected  Mathematical  Blocks, 

Door  Mats,  90 

Dusters, 

Eureka  Liquid  Slating,    - 

Eureka  Wall  Slates, 

Forms  and  Solids.— NEW— For  Object  Teaching, 

Geometrical  Forms,    - 

Globe  Clock— Timby's,     - 

Gonigraph, 

Hand  Bells, 

Honor  Rolls,    - 

Kindergarten  Blocks, 

Mathematical  Blocks, 

Medals, 

Numeral  Frames, 

Object-Teaching  Forms, 

Rain  Gauge — Smithsonian 

Rogers'  School  Groups,    - 

Shades,  Hat  racks,  Sweepers,  etc.,      - 

_.         „.  90 

Shoe  Scrapers.        - 

Spelling  and  Sentence  Sticks, 

Tape  Measures,  Patent  Spring.      -  ^ 

Thermometers, 


EUHEKA  LIQUID  SLATING 

(MuNGER's  INVENTION.    J.  W.  SCHEBMERHORN  &  Co.,  SOLE  MANUFACTURERS), 
MAKES    A    SURFACE    WHICH    RIVALS    THE    BEST    STONE    SLATES. 

It  is  perfectly  Black  ;  never  Crumbles  ;  always  remains  Hard  and  Smooth. 

It  is  successfully  applied  to  board,  paper,  or  wall,  and  is  invaluable  in  renovating  old 
Blackboards.  Its  DURABILITY  is  proved  by  eighteen  years'  severe  use  in  the  best  schools 
of  New  England  and  New  York.  The  Surface  seems  to  improve  with  use  and  age.  Any 
teacher,  observing  "Directions,"  can  apply  it,  making  perfect  slate  surface,  un- 
rivalled in  color,  smoothness,  and  durability. 

PRICE:  Pints,  $1.5O;    Quarts,  $2.50;    Gallons,  $0.00. 

One  quart  will  cover  100  square  feet,  one  coat.  Hence  it  makes  CHEAP  Blackboard. 
For  old  Boards,  one  coat  is  enough  ;  new  surface  requires  two.  It  is  put  up  in  tin  cans, 
and  safely  sent  by  express. 

CAUTION.  —  EUREKA  LIQUID  SLATING  is  the  ORIGINAL  Liquid  Slating  —  the  first 
Liquid  Blackboard  ever  sold.  Its  success  has  called  out  imitations  ;  but  none  produce 
the  perfectly  smooth,  enduring,  dead-black  surface  of  the  Eureka.  IT  is 

THE  ONLY  SLATE  SURFACE  WHICH  WILL  NOT  GLAZE. 

Prominent  Educators  almost  everywhere  can  speak  for  EUREKA  SLATING  ;  and  we 
will  warrant  il.  _  _ 

Testimony  for  the  EUREKA  SLATING. 

The  Eureka  Liquid  Slating  will  always  give  satisfaction  when  properly  applied. 
JOHN  D. 


PHILBRICK,  Supt.  Public  Schools,  Boston,  Mass. 

We  have  used  Eureka  Slating  on  our  blackboards  since  1864  ;  I  do  not  hesitate  to  say  that  they 
are  superior  to  the  best  stone  slates. 

C.  G.  CLARK,  Master  Bigelow  Grammar  School,  S.  Boston,  Mass. 

I  have  used  it  fifteen  years,  and  it  seems  to  improve.    From  my  own  experience  I  think  it  will 
last  FIFTY  YEARS.  E.  ROBINS,  Principal,  New  Haven.  Conn. 

The  Eureka  is  the  best  surface  for  Blackboards  we  have  used  in  ten  years1  teaching. 

GEO.  D.  BROOMELL,  Principal  Haven  School  Chicago 
IRA  S.  BAKER,  Principal  Skinner  School,  Chicago. 

Your  Eureka  Slating  is  wonderful.    I  applied  it  to  old  blackboards.     They  are  like  stone  slate. 
O.  R.  WILLIS,  Principal  Alexander  Institute,  White  Plains,  N.  Y. 


Office  Superintendent  Public  Schools,  Cleveland,  Ohio,  1867. 

,__  ..Jatina  covers  ove,   * 

$1000.    We  are  well 


Enreka  Liquid  Slating  covers  over  twelve  thousand  feet  of  our  blackboards,  at  a  cost  of  about 
e  are  well  paid.    It  is  far  superior  to  anything  which  I  know.  ANSON  SMYTH. 


Enreka  Slating  is  on  blackboards  in  my  school.  They  are  hard,  do  not  reflect  the  light,  and  are 
smoother  than  natural  slate.  A.  J.  RICKOFF,  Principal,  Cincinnati,  Ohio. 

I  have  used  it  ten  years.    It  is  slate-color,  smooth,  and  never  becomes  glossy. 

O.  S.  COOK,  Principal  No.  2,  Dayton,  Ohio. 

For  fifteen  years  I  have  used  blackboards  of  every  sort,  those  made  of  wood,  and  well  coated 
with  various  preparations.  I  have  tried  quarry  slate.  For  six  years  I  have  used  Eureka  Slating, 
and  find  it  superior  to  any  other  6D  -ce  HQWE  prin  Prep  Dept  ?  Chicago  Univergity. 


Albion  -Commercial  College,  Michigan.  May  3,  1864. 
We  find  Eureka  Slating  surface  equal  to  the  best  stone  slates.         (HoK.)  IRA  MAYHEW,  Prest. 

National  Business  College,  Chicago,  May  25,  1866. 

We  have  used  it  in  our  four  College  buildings,  on  common  walls  and  on  old  boards     It  exceeds 
our  hopes  in  fineness  and  durability?  H.  G.  EASTMAN,  LL.D.,  Prest.;    D.  K.  ALLEN,  Secy. 

Indianapolis  Female  Institute.  2nd.,  March  12,  1866. 

For  four  vear?  we  have  used  Eureka  Slating,  with  complete  satisfaction.-on  wood,  pape 
walls,  and  hard  finish.    I  prefer  it  to  real  slate,  "because  it  is  as  good,  with  ad^ntege  of  unbroken 
surfaoe  to  any  extent.  c-  W-  HE^  ES'  P] 

St.  Joseph,  Missouri,  Aug.  28,  1865. 
It  is  easily  applied,  and  makes  a  beautiful  and  perfect  blackboard  surface^ 


Minnesota  State  Normal  School.  Winona.  March  13,  1866. 

Our  blackboards  are  of  Enreka  Slating.     It  leaves  nothing  to  be  desired.    It  ip  equal  to  be 
Vermont  and  Lehi°h  slates,  besides  being  cheaper.    I  commend  it  to  the  teachers  of  the  Northwest. 

WM.  F.  PHELPS,  Principal. 

Besides    above,  we  can  refer  to   thousands   of  the  most   intelligent 
teachers  and  school  officers  in  the  land. 


EUREKA  WALL  SLATES. 

Heady  made  Standard  Sizes,  PERFECT  Slate  SURFACE,  in  neat  ash  frames : 

JVo.  1,  Size,  8   X3  ft.,  finished  on  both  sides  (giving  13  Sqr.  ft.  of  Surface)  $3  5O 


3  X* 

3ix  5  " 

4"  X  5  " 

4  X6  « 
3  X6  " 


18           «  u  5 

«                               «                                      '*                  34                  '»  «  7     00 

u                  t»                      **          37          *'  '*  7  75 

it                  t*                      -          33          «t  tt  9  50 

u                  «                      «          35           tt  u  10  35 

*<                  tt                      '•          40          --  kt.  13   00 

t<                  ««                      -•          48           ••  «  14  00 

eatly  lined  for  Music 13  50 

Black  "Walnut  frames  Extra. 


«    9, 
AXY  SIZE  MADE  TO  ORDER.     Black  "Walnut  frames  Extra 1  00 

They  are  so  framed  that  they  are  free  to  shrink  or  swell  without  possibility  of  splitting  or  warping 


The  utility  of  the  blackboard  is  beyond  discussion.  It  is  an  admitted  necessity 
wherever  teaching  is  to  be  done.  The  DAY-SCHOOL  TEACHEB,  SUNDAY-SCHOOL  TEACHER, 
LECTUBEB  on  Science,  and  PROFESSOR  in  college,  each  has  constant  need  of  it. 

It  being  indispensable,  the  question  is,  What  blackboard  is  best  ?  The  verdict 
of  Science  and  testimony  of  teachers  agree  on  the  EUREKA.  This  surface  is  incom- 
parably THE  BEST.  The  most  costly  natural  slates  do  not  equal  it.  It  is  finer  and 
harder  and  blacker  than  slate.  It  is  also  smoother,  and  yet  it  never  becomes  glazed, 
and  marks  upon  it  are  perfectly  legible  from  any  direction. 

The  portable  Eureka  Slate  is  unrivalled.  It  is  light,  easily  and  safely  handled, 
less  liable  than  slate  to  breaks  and  scratches,  more  convenient  to  use,  much  cheaper, 
besides  being  safely  transportable.  The  surface,  though  hard  as  flint,  never  checks 
or  separates  from  the  wood.  This  elasticity  of  the  Eureka  Slate  is  one  of  its 
peculiar  and  most  valuable  properties. 

IBlaelicboards,  Spherical,  or  '* Slated.  GloT>es."— Invaluable 

in  "  OBJECT  TEACHING,"  MATHEMATICAL  GEOGRAPHY,  etc.,  six  sizes $1  5O  to  Sjj»3O  OO 

lOlaeltboard  Easel— KENDALL'S.     New  and  Perfect.     Patented 3  OO 

JSlaelt  ooard.  Support— HAMMOND'S,  very  substantial. 

Size  adapted  to  any  one  of  our  Standard  Blackboards,  $6 ;  same,  made  of  black-walnut 7  5O 

Blacltboard  Hu."bTb>ers— 8  varieties.    See  Special  Circular.    Per  doz.$l  5O  to  f>  5O 

Ulaoltfooard  Pointers— Lengths  from  3^  to  5  ft.  each 3O 

Ora"yons — White,  per  gross— . 30;   Colored,  per  gross -•-         1  35 

i  doz.  White,  in  neat  paper  box-.  10  ;   Do.  colored— — 

Holders — Recently  invented,  neat  and  economical,  each- -  1O 


BLACK-BOARD  EASELS,  SUPPORTS  ETC. 


Kendall's  BlaCk-bOard  Easel  is  specially  suited  for  class-rooms,  lecture -halls,  Sun- 
day-schools, and  places  where  economy  of  space  is  an 
object.  When  not  wanted,  it  can  be  folded  up  in  a 
moment,  and  put  away  like  an  ordinary  board.  Its 
portability,  the  little  room  it  occupies  when  packed,  and 
consequent  cheapness  of  transportation  make  it  a  most 
convenient  and  economical  Easel.  It  is  Patented. 

PRICE,  Ash, $3.OO 

"        Black  Walnut, 3.6O 


The   Revolving   Black-board   Easel,   for  the  Teacher's  Desk  or  Table,    ha» 
for  some  years  answered  a  good  purpose  in  the  schools  of 
New  York  City,  and  is  now  first  offered  to  the  public.    The 
first  cut  represents  it  occupied  by  a  Black-board,    the 
second  cut  shows  its  construction.        jPrice,    $5*  OO. 


Hammond's  Black-board  Support, 

Obviating  the  disadvantages  of  movable  black- 
boards, has  become  deservedly  popular.  The 
iron  feet  are  sufficiently  heavy  to  insure  stability. 
It  is  rigid  and  substantial.  There  are  no  glued 
joints  ;  all  the  parts  are  firmly  bolted  together, 
and  are  taken  apart  for  shipping.  It  has  lock- 
pins  for  holding  the  board  hi  position.  It  may 
be  revolved  either  way — on  horizontal  or  per- 
pendicular axle — as  shown  in  the  cut.  The 
board  touches  the  Support  only  on  these  pins, 
and  is  noiseless.  Beneath  the  board  is  a  shelf 
for  crayons,  and  for  the  falling  particles  of  chalk. 
It  is  a  serviceable  and  ornamental  piece  of  furni- 
ture for  the  school  or  lectu.  e-room. 
Size  adapted  to  any  one  of  our  Stand- 
ard Wall  Slates, $6  OO 

Same,  of  black  walnut, ?  50 

DBlaclc  Board  Ru.b'bers,  8  varieties Per  dozen,    &1.5O  to     5.5O 

Eureka  "Wall  Slates,  neatly  framed,  9  standard  sizes Each,        3.5O  to  13. 5O 

Slated  G-lot»es,  for  Mathematical  Geography,  etc.,  6  sizes....     "  1.5O  to  3O.OO 

Glaoli  Board  J?olnters,  BLACK  BOARD  COMPASSES,  Crayons,  Crayon  Holders,  etc 


SCHOOL   MATERIAL.  81 

Blackboard  Rubbers, 

For  Erasing  Marks  from  Blackboards  and  Wall  Slates  of  all  kinds, 

The  dusty  rag  for  clearing  blackboards  of  marks,  is  disappearing  with  the  slovenly 
teachers  who  were  known  in  the  past.  No  tidy  teacher  can  permit  the  scattering  of  dust 
about  the  school-room,  defiling  the  furniture,  books,  and  dresses  of  pupils,  besides  damage- 
ing  the  health  of  teachers  and  pupils.  To  meet  the  increasing  demand  for  Erasers  or 
Blackboard  Rubbers,  we  manufacture  the  following  varied  styles  : 

No.  0.  Size  2  in.  by  3f  in.  The  block  is  ash  or  other  suitable  wood,  properly  grooved 
for  grasping  with  the  hand.  It  is  covered  with  sheepskin,  usually  "  Shearling."  The 
skin  is  securely  fastened  to  the  block  and  bound  with  binders'  cloth.  Price,  perdoz.  1.5O 

No- 1.  Size  2  in.  by  7  in.  This  is  made  in  same  manner  and  of  same  material  as  No.  0, 
differing  only  in  length.  Per  doz 2.4O 

No.  2.  Size  2£  by  7£  in.  Is  covered  with  first-class  lambskin,  having  heavy  and  dur- 
able wool.  The  binding  is  leather.  Per  doz 3.OO 

No.  3.  Is  made  of  A  1  extra  lambskin,  having  very  fine  long  bleached  wool,  bound 
with  red  morocco.  Per  doz 4.OO 

No.  4.  "  Brussels."  This  rubber  is  made  like  No.  3,  except  that  a  good  quality  of 
Brussels  carpeting  takes  the  place  of  lambskin.  Per  doz 4.5O 

No.  5.  "  Tapestry."  This  is  covered  with  fine  heavy  velvet  Tapestry  carpeting.  It 
is  a  handsome  and  efficient  rubber,  highly  esteemed  in  young  ladies'  seminaries  and 
colleges.  Per  doz  5.OO 

No.  6.  "  California  Rubber."  Is  made  over  an  elaborate  block,  in  three  parts,  screwed 
together,  peculiar  to  this  style.  It  is  larger"  than  regular  size,  and  covered  with  superior 
heavy  Red  Plush.  It  requires  no  binding.*  Per  doz 5.5O 

No.  7.  "  The  Chamois  Rubber" — patented — consists  of  a  series  of  strips  of  Chamois 
skin-,  securely  fixed  in  hard-wood  block,  properly  grooved.  It  is  so  arranged  that  the  series 
of  Chamois  edges  come  in  snug  contact  with  the  blackboard,  most  effectually  removing 
every  particle  of  dust,  gathering  it  up  between  the  folds.  When  filled,  the  dust  may  be 
entirely  discharged  by  rubbing  two  rubbers  briskly  together — thus  all  the  wasted  chalk 
may  be  conveyed  out  of  the  school-room.  It  proves  durable  and  is  very  highly  appreciated. 
Per  doz 5.OO 

We  claim  that  our  Blackboard  Rubbers  are  the  very  best  manufactured.  We  will 
pay  liberally  for  any  new  inventions  or  improvements  on  these  articles. 


The    Chamois    Slate    Rubber, 

"A  GEM   FOR   THE   SCHOOL-ROOM 

It  dispenses  with  sponge  and  water  in  erasing  marks  from  the  slate.     No  more  need 

the  teacher  hear  the  frequent  question,  "  Please,  sir,  may  I  go  to  wash  my  slate "?"    Nor 

need  the  child  spit  upon  his  slate  to  erase  the  marks. 

It  is  made  of  wood  and  Chamois  skin,  arranged  to  bring  a  series  of  edges  of  skin 

snugly  against  the  surface  of  slate. 
Every  teacher  will  recommend  it  because  of  its  real  convenience  and  neatness.     Every 

pupil  will  buy  it.     It  costs  no  more  than  a  good  sponge. 

No.  1— size  1  in.  by  1^— price,  per  100 5.OO 

No.  2— size  2  in.  square — per  100 8.OO 

(Specimens,  by  mail,  of  No.  1,  1C  cent§— of  No.  2,  15  cents.) 


82 


SCHOOL   MATERIAL. 


The   Slate  Pencil  Holder. 

The  cut  represents  it  about  half  size.  It  is  made  of  wood,  bored  to  receive  a  regular 
four-inch  slate  pencil — a  six-inch  pencil  broken  in  halves  answers  the  purpose.  Its  size 
obviates  the  difficulties  of  other  inventions,  which  are  too  small  for  the  regular  slate  pen- 
cils offered  for  sale.  Its  advantages  are  too  manifest  to  require  enumeration  here.  Every 
teacher  knows  how  desirable  it  is  to  have  a  device  which  is  large  enough  and  long  enough 
to  prevent  the  irregular  bits  of  slate  pencils  from  cramping  the  childrens'  fingers  and  injur- 
ing them  for  writing.  The  pencil  is  held  securely  in  place  on  the  same  plan  as  the  crayon 
in  the  crayon  holder,  fully  illustrated  below.  It  can  be  used  as  a  pen  holder. 

(Specimens  maUedfor  10  cents.)  Price,  each.  5  cents. 


The  Crayon  Holder,   Full  Size. 

Its  length  is  adapted  to  receive  an  entire  crayon  (which  should  be  inserted  small  end 
first).  Its  great  merit,  hitherto  unattained,  is  that  it  is  short  enough  to  be  held  easily  and 
naturally  in  the  hand,  as  a  crayon.  It  is  light  and  pleasant  to  the  touch,  and  cannot  soil 
the  dress  and  fingers.  Being  made  entirely  of  wood,  it  will  not  scratch  the  blackboard. 
It  will  quickly  save  more  than  its  cost  in  utilizing  the  small  pieces  of  crayons  which  cannot 
be  held  in  the  fingers. 

(Specimens  mailed  for  15  cents.)  Price,  each  10  cents. 


The  New  Blackboard  Dividers 

Are  made  to  receive  and  hold  crayons  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
crayon  holder.    Each  leg  is  adapted  to  receive  a  crayon,  which  is 
frequently  a  great  convenience,  in  drawing  parallel  lines,  and  for 
various  other  purposes.     In  the  cut  one  leg  of  the  dividers  is 
occupied  by  a  piece  of  wood  with  a  sharp  metallic  point.     This 
renders  the  length  of  the  leg  adjustable.     The  head  is  fitted  with 
a  strong  set-screw,  which  cannot  get  out  of  order.     These  dividers  have  no  equal,  and  are 
cheaper  than  the  common  articles.     The  same  patent  covers  the  slate  pencil  holder,  the 
crayon  holder,  and  the  new  blackboard  dividers,  or  "  crayon  compasses." 
Price,  .          .  $1.00 


SCHOOL    MATERIAL. 

Object  Teaching  Aids. 

THE  SPELLING:  STICK  AND  THE  SENTENCE  STICK, 


83 


The  Spelling  Stick  consists  of  a  piece  of  wood  properly  fashioned  and  grooved  for 
holding  the  letters.  It  has  a  handle  as  shown  in  the  cut.  It  is  accompanied  by  letters  on 
card-board — one  set  of  CAPITALS,  and  a  "  three-a  font"  of  lower-case  letters. 

Teachers  of  primary  classes,  with  the  aid  of  this  simple  device,  will  find  it  easy  to  fix 
the  attention  of  their  pupils,  teach  the  forms  of  the  letters,  and  how  to  combine  them  into 
words.  By  its  use  words  and  their  spelling  may  be  taught  to  a  large  class  with  less 
outlay  of  time  and  patience  than  is  required  for  teaching  a  single  pupil  with  the  book  alone. 

The  Sentence  Stick  has  precisely  the  same  construction.  It  is  accompanied  by  135 
common  words,  on  card-board.  It  is  useful  in  teaching  primarians  to  construct  sentences, 
just  as  the  Spelling  Stick  aids  in  constructing  words.  The  first  principles  of  grammar 
and  composition  may  be  pleasantly  illustrated,  and  attention  may  be  called  to  the  common 
errors  of  speech.  In  the  hands  of  a  skillful  teacher  its  uses  may  be  greatly  extended  and 
multiplied. 

These  Simple  instruments  have  been  successfully  tested  by  many  teachers,  and  are  highly 
esteemed  for  their  practical  utility.  Their  rank,  as  to  efficiency  in  the  school-room,  is 
equal,  or  superior,  to  the  Numeral  Frame. 

Spelling  Sticks,  or,  "  Word-making"  Sticks  for  Primarians,  each $O.25 

Fonts  of  letters,  on  card-board,  for  game,  in  box O.50 

Sentence  Sticks,  for  Primarians  "  to  build  up  sentences" O.25 

Sets  of  Small  words,  on  card-board,  for  same,  in  box 0.50 

Alphabet  Charts,  24  x  40  inches,  heavy  Manilla,  with  rollers  :— 

No.  1.  Capital  Letters  and  Arabic  Figures  (75  cts.  each) i          • 

No  2.  Small  Letters,  Points,  and  Roman  Numerals  (75  cts.  each)   } tbe  Pair *  'OC 

Alphabet  Charts,  Indestructible,  24  x  36  inches,  with  rollers,    These  are  entirely 
new,  being  printed  on  cloth,  in  oil  colors,  by  Dr.  Johnson's  patent  process  : — 

No.  1.  Capital  Letters  and  Arabic  Figures  (75  cts.  each) »  .  i    -t\ 

No.  2.  Small  Letters,  Points,  and  Roman  Numerals  (75  cts.  each)  f the  pair 

Alphabet  Blocks,  Hill's.    No.  1,  per  box O.25 

No.  2,  35  eta,;  No.  3,  40  cts.:  No.4,60cts.;  No.5,$l;  No.  6 1.2& 


84 


SCHOOL   MATERIAL. 


Object  Teaching  Aids. 

Color-Cubes,  with  direction  for  use $1.25 

This  set  of  Color-Cubes  comprises  eight  Cubes : — six  of  which  contain  six  colors  on 
each — red,  orange,  yellow,  green,  blue,  purple.  The  other  two  Cubes  contain  white, 
black,  drab,  russet,  citrine,  blue,  on  each.  The  set  is  put  up  in  a  paper  box,  with  a  sheet 
of  directions  for  use. 

Kindergarten  Blocks,  au  Froebel,  per  box $1 .00 

Miss  Peabody  suggests  that  the  teacher  can  find  nothing  better  than  these  blocks  to  aid 
in  conveying  elementary  ideas  of  FORM.  They  are  easily  susceptible  of  reduction  to  a 
great  variety  of  forms,  such  as  Arches,  Arcades,  Bridges,  Castles,  Chairs,  Churches, 
Columns,  Gateways,  Houses,  Sentry-boxes,  etc.,  etc. 


NUMERAL    FRAMES 

OP  SUPERIOR  STYLE  AND  WORKMANSHIP. 

No.  1— With  100  Balls $1.25 

No.  2— With  144  Balls ; 1.50 

The  Abacus,  or  Numeral  Frame,  is  now  a 
very  popular  and  almost  indispensable  aid  in 
teaching  children  to  count,  and  in  giving  them 
correct  ideas  of  numbers,  and  of  their  first 
lessons  in  addition,  subtraction,  etc. 

Valuable  and  ingenious  hints  for  its  use  may 
be  found  in  "Calkins'  Classified  List  (illustrated) 
of  Object  Teaching  Aids,  for  Home  and  Schools." 
(Price,  1O  cents.) 


0.80 
1.00 


MATHEMATICAL  BLOCKS,  DISSECTED, 

1.  The  Cube  Root  Block—"  To  one  place,"  in  neat  box $0.60 

This  may  be  mailed  (letter  postage)  for  SI  .25. 

2.  The  Cube  Root  Block— "To  two  places" 

3.  The  Cube  Root  Block—"  To  two  places,   larger- .  • 

These  are  accurately  dissected  blocks,  invaluable  in  illus- 
trating the  rule  of  Cube  Root.  One  of  them  should  be  in  the 
hands  of  every  teacher  who  attempts  to  instruct  pupils  in  that 
usually  troublesome  part  of  Arithmetic. 

4.  Dissected  Cone— sections  of  different  colored  wood— for  illus- 

trating conic  sections.    Large  size,  8  inches  high,  4$  inches 
diameter  at  base 2'5° 

Melville's  Complete  Drawing  and  Building  Blocks.    Elaborate  and 

S15.OO 

very  superior 

For  use  in  Art  Schools,  Scientific  Schools,  Colleges,  Academies,  and  High  Schools. 


SCHOOL    MATERIAL. 


85 


New  Forms  and  Solids 


FOE  OBJECT  TEACHING. 

Containing  sixty-four  pieces — there  being  forty-eight  Plane  Forms,  fifteen 

Solids,  and  a  six-inch  Rule,  among  which  are  several  NEW 

Forms  and  Solids,  not  included  in  any  other  set. 

Each  Form  is  stamped  with  its  Number  in  the  List. 

1 .  Equilateral  Triangle. 

2.  Right  Angled    " 

3.  " 

4.  Obtuse   " 

5.  Curved 

6.  Triangle— one  curved  side. 

7.  Isosceles  Triangle. 

8.  Scalene         " 

9.  Square. 

10.  Oblong. 

11.  Rhomb. 

PRICE  (neatly  put  up  in  substantial  wood  box),  $2.75. 

A  complete  illustrated  description  of  these   Forms  and   Solids  appears    in  Calkins' 
Classified  List  of  Object  Teaching  Aids  (price  1O  cents). 


12. 

Rhomboid. 

23. 

Quadrant. 

34. 

Ovoid. 

13. 

Trapezium. 

24. 

Segment. 

35. 

Cylinder. 

14. 

Trapezoid. 

25. 

Sector. 

36. 

Cone. 

15. 

Pentagon. 

26. 

Ring. 

37. 

Conoid. 

16. 

Hexagon. 

27. 

Crescent. 

38. 

Cube. 

17, 

Heptagon. 

28. 

Ellipse. 

39. 

Square  Prism. 

IS. 

Octagon. 

29. 

Oval. 

40. 

Triangular  Prism 

19. 

Nonagon. 

30. 

Sphere. 

41. 

Hexagonal     " 

20. 

Decagon. 

31. 

Hemi-Sphere. 

42. 

Square  Pyramid. 

21. 

Circle. 

32. 

Prolate-Spheroid. 

43. 

Triangular    " 

22. 

Semi-Circle. 

33. 

Oblate. 

44. 

Six  -inch  Rule. 

Geometrical  Forms  and  Arithmetical  Solids. 
Each  Piece  is  stamped  with  its  Number,  as  in  the  List. 


1.  Sphere. 

2.  Hemisphere. 

3.  Prolate  Spheroid. 

4.  Oblate  Spheroid. 


8.  Triangular  Prism. 

9.  Square  Prism. 

1  Oc  Hexagonal  Prism. 
11.  Cube. 


15.  Parallelopipedon. 

16.  Parallelopipedon. 

17.  Parallelopipedon. 

18.  Oblique  Prism  (3  pieces). 


So  Pyramid  and  Frustrum.    12.  Cube  (Eight  times  No.  11).  19.  Parallelopipedoi 


60  Cone  and  Frustrum. 
7o  Cylinder. 


13.  Cube  (Eight  times  No.  12).  2O.  Paralielopipedon. 

14.  Parallelopipedon.  21.  Carpenter's  Theorem  (4  pieces). 


Twenty-six  Pieces,  in  substantial  wood  box,  $2.50. 


Parallelogram. 

The  Goiligraph  is  a  small  instrument  resembling  somewhat  a  jointed  carpenter's 
rule,  but  made  so  as  to  bend  in  only  two  directions.  It  is  made  with  several  short  rulers, 
or  joints  of  iron  or  brass,  fastened  together  by  pivots.  With  it  may  be  formed  all  the 
geometrical  figures  that  consist  of  straight  lines  and  angles,  some  of  which  are  illustrated 
by  the  accompanying  engravings. 


Square.  Rhomb.  .  Trianglet 

Pentagon. 
Price,  in  wood,  25  cts. ;  whalebone,  40  cts.  j  metal,  50  cts. 


Octagon. 


CALL-BELLS. 


E    old-time   School-master,    emphasized    his    COM- 
HANDS  by  heavy  thwacks  of  a  ruler — sometimes  on 
the  desks,  and  sometimes  on  the  sconces  of  his  terri- 
fied pupils.    The  Call-Bell  is  a  better  instrument,  and 
has  become  as  indispensable  as  the  ruler  or  strap  used 
to  be — much  to  the  relief  of  both  teachers  and  taught. 
The  bells  shown  in  the  cuts  are  silver-plated,  and  of  fine  tone.    The 
cuts  represent  one-fifth  size. 


No.  1. 


NO.  a. 


No.  3. 


No. 


No.  5. 


No.  6. 


No.  7. 


No.  8. 


No.  9. 


No.  10. 


PRICE  LIST, 

Fancy  Bronze  Base $    go 

Fancy  Base 

Fancy  Bronze  Base 

Black  Marble  Base 

Fancy  Bronze  Base 

Fancy  Bronze  Base 

Black  Base 

Bronze  Base 

Black  Base 

White  Marble  Base 

Bronze  Base 


Black  and  Gold  Base 3  50 


No.  11. 


No. 


Silver  Plated  Hand-Bells. 


No.  4.     70c.  No.  5.     $1.70. 


Hand-Bells  of  Pure  Copper  and  Tin, 

Warranted  superior  in  tone ;  twelve  sizes. 


o.  1,  Exl 
2, 
3, 
4, 
5, 
6, 
7, 
8, 
9, 
10, 
12, 
14, 

ira  Pol 

Diamti 
ish,  2§  in( 

er.               Height. 

;h.            3§  inch. 

4i     » 
6g     «« 
64     » 
61     " 
Ik     " 
84     " 
8i     " 
9^     » 
10      » 
10i     " 
11      » 

Each 

$0.20 
.25 
.§0 
.65 
.65 
.75 
.90 
/.A? 

f.eo 

2.00 

2.£0 
3.00 

2| 

'                                                         3s 

'                                                       .34 

31 

4J 

5 

5£ 

6 

61 

61 

7 

Patent  Spring  Tape  Measures. 


in  Lacquered  Brass  Cases, 


Three  Feet  Measures,  in  Silver  Plated  Cases, Price,  45  Cents, 

Five 

Six 

Three 

Five 

Six 

Three 

Five 

Six 


in  Nickel  Silver  Cases, 


50 
55 
45 
50 
55 
65 
70 
75  " 


SCHOOL  CLOCKS. 


No.  i.  Octagon  Marine,  one  day, 
6  in.  Dial $4.00 

No.  2.  Drop  Octagon,  Spring, Eight 
day,  Height  25  in 6.00 

In  response  to  frequent  calls  from  teachers 
and  School  Officers  for  clocks  suitable  for 
school  use,  the  foregoing  styles  have  been 
selected  as  best  adapted  for  that  purpose. 

These  clocks  are  of  the  best  American  manufacture  and  are  reliable  time- 
keepers. 


TIMBY'S  GLOBE  TIME  PIECE, 

For    illustrating    t?ie    rela- 
tions of  ^Longitude  and  Time. 

The  Time  Piece  consists  of  an  eight- 
day  clock,  with  a  globe  so  mounted  as 
to  make  one  revolution  every  twenty- 
four  hours,  thus  bringing  each  meri- 
dian directly  under  the  sun  (represented 
by  a  gilded  ball),  once  a  day  ;  while  the 
pointer,  which  shows  on  the  moving 
dial  our  time,  points  constantly  to  that 
part  of  the  earth  crossed  by  the  noon 
meridian.  The  time  at  every  other 
part  of  the  earth  may  be  ascertained 
from  the  meridians.  The  Dial  en- 
circles the  Globe,  and  revolves  with  it 
The  globe  may  be  turned  either  way 
without  injury  to  the  clock-movement. 
The  whole  apparatus  may  be  placed 
on  its  back  or  in  any  position  desired 
for  the  study  of  the  globe,  or  for  illustrating  the  relations  of  longitude  and  time. 
The  Clock  is  simple  in  consiruction,  strong  and  durable,  and  is  offered  at  a  price  but 
little  greater  than  is  asked  for  an  ordinary  clock  of  corresponding  finish.  The  bal- 
ance-wheel is  set  in  jewels,  and  every  care  is  taken  to  ensure  a  first-class  Time  Piece. 

Price,  (Box  for  packing  75  cts.)  $25.0O. 


E£O.NT  VIEW 


SCHOOL    MATERIAL. 


89 


Thermometers,  Barometers,  etc, 

The  teacher  cannot  trust  his  own  feelings  to  regulate  the  temperature  of  the 
school-room." 


60 


Our  Thermometers  are  mantrfactured  by  one  of  the  oldest  establishments  in  the  country, 
whose  reputation  is  not  surpassed  "by  any  in  America  or  in  Europe.  These  standard 
instruments  are  used  by  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  at  Washington,  D.  C. 

List  of  sizes,  styles,  and  prices. — Liberal  discounts  by  the  dozen. 

7  Inch,  White  Tube,  Tin  Case each,     O.50 

8  «  "  "  "        "  .55 

10    "  f'  "  " "  .60 

12    "  «  «  "        "  .T5 

8  "  "  "  Mahogany  Case "  ,8O 

10  "  "  "  "  "  ..."  .85 

8  "  "  "  Eosewood  Case "  ,9O 

10  "  "  "  "  ,  .  "  1.00 


Standards, 


10  Inch,  White  Tin  Case,  Single  Degree  Ruby 

•tn      ff  <i  (t  a  « 

12    "  "  «          Half  Degree  Rubv . 


1.25 
1.50 
2.25 


Rain  Gauge — the    Smithsonian price,     5.OO 

Glass  Hydrometers,  of  usual  styles,  at  manufacturers'  prices. 
barometers,  Aneroid  and  Mercurial,  several  styles,  at  usual  rates. 


90 


SCHOOL    MATERIAL. 


Aids  to  Neatness  and  Cleanliness. 

"  Whatever  may  be  requisite  for  the  neatness  and  good  order  of  a  private  residence,  cannot  be 
out  of  place,  for  the  same  purposes,  in  a  School-House." 


Shoe  Scrapers,  with  Patent  Revolving  Brushes. 

No.   1. — For  fastening  to  wood  steps,  price, 
No.  2. — For  fastening  to  stone  steps,  price, 


$2.00 
2.00 


No.  3.— Oval  Pan  Shoe  Scraper,  with  Revolving  Brushes, 


$2.50. 


No,  4. — Square  Pan  Shoe  Scraper,  with  Revolving  Brushes, 
Door   Mats Three  Sizes,  17  in.  by  25  in. ;      18  in.  by  33  in. ; 


Jute, 

Coir,  ordinary. 

Coir,  solid 

Rope, 


.each, 


$0.65 

.90 

1.25 

1.25 


$0.75 
1.10 
1.50 
1.65 


-    $3.00. 

19  in.  by  36  in. 

$0.90 

1.40 

1.75 

2.00. 


Modern  School  Officers  require  no  arguments  to  convince  them  of  the  necessity 
for  articles  such  as  these  in  every  school.  Live  teachers  will  see  that  they  are  con- 
stantly used  when  provided,  and  school  children  will  acquire  habits,  through  the  use  of 
these  articles,  which  will  adhere  to  them  through  their  lives,  and  make  better  men  and 
women  of  them. 


SCHOOL   MATERIAL. 


91 


Shades,  Hat  Eacks,  Dusters,  and  Sweepers. 

"  It  is  most  important  that  the  school-room  be  kept  perfectly  comfortable,  cheerful,  and 
clean." 

For  School-room  Windows  the  Rustic  Shade  is  recommended 
on  account  of  its  simplicity,  durability,  and  cheapness.  It  is 
furnished  complete,  ready  to  be  put  up  with  two  nails  or  screws.  They 
may  be  had  in  any  colors — brown,  blue,  buff,  pearl,  green,  or  oiled 
walnut.  The  last  two  are  generally  required  for  school  purposes. 
They  are  made  for  windows  of  any  size.  In  sending  dimensions  for 

ordering  the  "  Rustic  Shades,"  give  the  full  length  and  width  of  the 

window,  allowing  on  the  width  about  one  inch  over  on  each  side. 
Circular  with  prices,  sent  on  application. 


Hat  and  Cloak  Racks.    Four  sizes,  4  to  8  hooks  on  each ;  price,  5O  Cts.  to  $1.0O. 

The  frames  are  made  of  black  walnut,  held  together  by  screw  rods ;  the  hooks  are  iron, 
nicely  coppered  and  well  lacquered  to  prevent  tarnishing  in  any  climate. 


School  Furniture  Dusters.    48  kinds,  varying  in  size  and  color, 
each,  15  cents  to  $3. 5O;— Colored,  25  cents  to  SI. 00. 


Plain, 


The  Champian  Dustless  School-House  Floor  Sweeper,  large  size,  price  $3.0O» 


Aids  to  School  Discipline: 

A    SUBSTITUTE    FOB 

tebotl    Iteeopds,   Reports, 

AND   APPKOPKIATE  DESIGNS,  PRINTED  IN  COLORS. 


•  AN  accurate  register  of  deportment  and  scholarship  promotes  healthy  emulation.  Yet 
such  a  register  is  rarely  kept.  Teachers  cannot  record  each  recitation  as  it  occurs,  hence 
the  record  is  neglected  for  the  time,  and  afterward  made  from  memory.  Perfect  accuracy 
being  impossible,  confidence  in  the  record  is  weakened  and  its  moral  force  lost.  The  Aids 
secure  the  good  results  of  accurate  records  and  reports,  with  less  expense  of  time. 

The  Aids  naturally  and  inevitably  awaken  a  lively  paternal  interest,  for  the  pupil 
takes  home  with  him  the  witness  of  his  daily  conduct  and  progress. 

The  Aids  may  be  used  in  various  ways.  This  is  convenient :  In  the  morning  give  each 
pupil  a  Card  (5  merits),  representing  a  perfect  day,  to  be  forfeited  for  misdemeanor,  or  fail- 
ure in  recitation.  Single  Merits  and  Half-Merits  are  for  pupils  who  fail  to  retain  their 
Cards  and  yet  are  worthy  of  some  credit.  Five  Cards  held  by  any  pupil  are  exchanged 
for  a  Check  (25  merits),  representing  a  perfect  School  Week.  Four  Checks  are  ex- 
changed for  a  Certificate  of  Merit,  representing  100  merits,  or  a  perfect  Month.  These 
Certificates  bear  the  pupil's  name,  and  are  signed  by  the  teacher.  The  number  held 
shows  the  pupil's  standing. 

If  prizes  or  medals  are  awarded  at  close  of  session,  there  can  be  no  mistake  in  deter- 
mining to  whom  they  belong :  the  decision  being  made  by  each  pupil  exhibiting  his  Cards 
and  Certificates,  no  idea  of  favoritism  can  arise. 

It  is  needless  to  discuss  the  value  of  proper  incentives,  for  either  children  or  adults. 
The  use  of  Millions  of  these  Aids,  with  the  unbounded  approval  of  Teachers,  Parents, 
and  Pupils,  assures  us  that  they  are  doing  great  good. 

They  are  neat  in  design,  printed  in  BEST  Colors.  _  The  Certificates  are  prizes 
which  pupils  will  cherish.  Single  Merits  and  Half-Merits  are  printed  on  card-board; 
Cards  and  Checks  on  heavy  paper,  and  may  be  used  many  times — hence  the  system  is 
Cheap.  They  are  put  up  in  sets  of  500,  there  being  80  Certificates,  120  Checks, 
200  Cards,  100  Single  Merits  and  Half-Merits.  Price,  per  set  (mailed)  $1.25. 


Supplied  separately  (by  mail) : 

Single  Merits,  per  hundred .15 

Cards  (fives)  per  hundred 15 


Half-Merits,  per  hundred 15 

Checks  (twenty-fives)  per  hundred,    .40 
Certificates  (hundreds)  per  hundred,  ,60 


Solxool 


Is  here  shown,  on  both  sides.  It  is  made  of  a  Superior  White  Metal,  and  will  not  easily  tarnish. 
On  one  side,  above  the  word  "Excellence,"  is  opportunity  to  engrave  the  date  of  presenting  the 
Medal.  On  the  other  side,  the  pupil's  name  may  be  engraved  on  the  ScroU.  (The  engraving  costs, 
in  New  York,  three  cents  a  letter  or  figure ;  on  receipt  of  the  money,  we  will  get  it  done  at  that  rate. 
In  most  localities,  some  jeweller  can  be  found  to  do  it  quite  as  well.)  This  is  the  best  School 
Medal  now  made,  and  is  highly  appreciated.  Price,  .25  ;  by  mail,  prepaid,  .35. 


SCHOOL   MATERIAL. 


93 


'MTTH. 

TONES. 


IXD  SO  O? 

[THK  BEST 


The  School  Index,  or  "Boll  of  Honor." 

"  Honor  and  shame  from  no  condition  rise : 
Act  ivell  your  part,  there  all  the  honor  lies.9'1 

To  teachers  who  keep  a  record  of  the  work  performed  by  their 
classes,  and  are  weary  of  writing  out,  week  after  week,  the  names 
and  relative  merits  of  each  of  their  pupils,  the  SCHOOL  INDEX  will 
be  welcome,  on  account  of  the  ease  with  which,  by  its  aid,  they  can 
accomplish  what  has  hitherto  been  an  arduous  task.  Its  construc- 
tion is  clearly  illustrated  in  the  accompanying  cut.  It  consists  of  a 
frame  in  which  are  arranged  small  pieces  of  wood,  on  which  the 
names  of  the  pupils  are  to  be  written.  These  can  be  taken  out  and 
moved  at  pleasure.  One  side  of  the  frame  is  hinged  to  admit  of  its 
being  opened  when  any  change  in  the  position  of  a  name-strip  is 
required.  On  the  other  side,  which  is  boxed,  are  numbers,  as  shown 
in  the  cut. 

In  connection  with  the  Aids  to  School  Discipline,  the 

School  Index  furnishes  an  accurate  and  reliable  means  of 
showing  the  standing  of  every  pupil.  The  "  Aids"  and  the  "  Index" 
together,  form  a  perfect  System  of  School  Records.  At  the  expira- 
tion of  a  "  quarter"  or  any  specified  time,  each  pupil  produces  his 
Cards  and  Certificates,  and  his  rank  being  determined  by  the  num- 
ber of  these  in  his  possession,  his  name  can  easily  be  put  in  its  proper 
place  in  the  Index.  If  any  error  in  arrangement  is  discovered,  it 
can  be  easily  corrected.  In  this  respect,  the  superiority  of  the  School 
Index  over  the  ordinary  Merit  Roll  is  readily  seen.  Where  the  Aids 
are  not  used,  the  Index  can  be  made  to  take  the  place  of  the  "  Merit 
Roll"  or  "  School  Record," — the  preparation  of  which  has  always 
caused  a  waste  of  much  valuable  time  and  effort. 

The  Index  may  be  used  to  show  the  standing  of  each  pupil 
as  to  scholarship  alone,  or  scholarship  together  with  deportment  and 
attendance.  As  it  is  to  be  displayed  in  a  prominent  place,  where  it 
can  be  seen  and  examined  not  only  by  the  pupils  but  by  parents  and 
others  who  visit  the  schools,  it  will  necessarily  have  a  beneficial 
influence  on  the  conduct  and  diligence  of  the  classes. 

If  desired,  it  can  be  used  to  show  the  rank  of  each  pupil  as  to  beha- 
vior alone,  and  in  this  case,  will  be  a  powerful  aid  in  school  govern- 
ment— BEING  FJRST  depending  on  BEING  GOOD,  every  one  will  nat- 
urally strive  to  excel  in  good  conduct. 

The  School  Index  is  simple  in  construction;  easily  man- 
aged ;  can  never  get  out  of  order,  there  being  no  "  machinery"  what- 
ever about  it ;  can  be  introduced  without  making  any  changes  in 
the  manner  of  governing  or  marking.;  is  neat  in  design ;  and  is  light, 
portable,  and  cheap. 

Wherever  introduced,  its  use  has  been  attended  with  the  hap- 
piest results,  and  has  called  forth  the  praise  of  experienced 
teachers. 

Price,  plain,          .  §2.00 

Price,  made  of  black  walnut,          .          .  $2.5O 


94  WORKS    OF   ART. 

Rogers'  School  Groups. 

"  Works  of  art  are  invaluable  in  educating  the  taste  of  the  young." 


The  School  Examination. — One  of  the  School  Committee  has  come  to  examine  the 
school,  and  is  pointing  out,  good-naturedly,  on  the  slate,  the  mistake  the  little  girl  has 
made  in  her  "  sum,"  while  the  teacher  stands  by  to  encourage  her. 

Height,  20  inches. — Weight,  when  packed,  80  pounds. — Price 15.OO 


Uncle  Ned's  School. — An  old  negro  booiulack  is  keeping  school,  hut  one  of  his 
pupils,  a  mulatto  girl,  has  asked  him  a  puzzling  question,  while  a  lazy  little  boy^  is  mis- 
chievously tickling  his  foot,  which  he  feels,  but  is  too  much  occupied  to  attend  to  it. 

Height,  20  inches. — Weight,  when  packed,  90  pounds. — Price 15.OO 


SCHOOL  MATERIAL  --PART  VI. 
SCHOOL  STATIONERY,  etc. 


PAGE 

Artists'  Material,  •                                   .           .           103 

Blotters  and  Blotting  Paper, 

Book  Carriers  and  Book  Rests, 

Bristol  Board,  -      1U 

Calendars,  -           -           -           -           HO 

Composition  Books  and  Composition  Paper, 

Drawing  Books  and  Drawing  Papers,  -            -            -           -           -           •            HI 

Envelopes, 

Erasable  Tablets*  HI 

Erasers,  ..--•-     106 

Exercise  Books,  105 

Initial  Pape*r,                          -  ...      107 

Ink  —  Fancy,          -.-            •  -            •           •            -           •            •            100 

School  and  Record,      --  .-••-97 

Inkstands—  Teachers',     -J  •                                    100 

Ink  Vents,       -                                    ...  99 

Ink-  Wells  and  Ink-  Well  Covers,'  -                                   -        98,  99 

Lead  Pencils,  »-                                    -                       '103 

Letter  Clips  and  Board  Clips,     -  108 

Lunch  Boxes,  -         ^^i-  He                               •     112 

Manuscript  Paper,  *%&&'                                           107 

Mucilage  and  Mucilage  Stands,        .  -  /TSVlTVfiBSW^      '            '      108 

Papers—  Note,  Letter,  Cap,  107 

Paper  Weights  and  Folders,  -      N^CA_LIFO                                -      1°8 

Pencil  File,  "-       "-»—-                                           103 

Penholders,                                      ->  .....      106 

Pen  and  Pencil  Baskets  and  Racks,  -                                                                         104 

Pens  —  Spencerian  Steel,        -  ....                        -      101 

Propelling  Pencils,    '  ....                                    103 

Post-Office  Boxes,  <v      .  -      110 

Reward-of-Merit  Cards  and  Testimonials,         -  ...             114 

Rulers,  -      106 

School  Bags,        -  -                       112 

Slates  —  Common,  Book,  and  Fancy  •           -       96 

Slate  Pencils,        -  ...                        -96 

Slate  Pencil  and  Penholder,  -                                                       103 

Rubbers,      -  96 

Spencerian  Penmanship,  ....                       -      102 

Steel  Pens,  -  101 

Stationer's  Gum,  ....                       -     103 

Stationery  Cases,                       -  -                                   -    107,  110 

Writing  Books,           .......  105 


96 


SCHOOL   STATIONERY. 


Slates,  Book-slates,  Fancy  Slates,  Slate  Pencils, 

SLATE   RUBBERS,    Etc. 


Size, 


4 

"  5 
"  6 
"  6* 


New  Oval  or  oval  edges  with 
oval  round  corners. 
6  inches. .  .price  per  doz. 

7 


$1.30 
1.5O 
2.10 
2.20 
2.40 
2.90 
3.50 
4.80 


Round  Corner  Counting-House  Slates. 
Two  Slates,  united  with  brass  hinges. 
Size,    6     x     9  inches,  price  per  doz.,     $6.87 

8.28 
8.90 
10.68 
11.75 
12.75 
12.75 
13.00 
19.15 
25.50 


7  x  11 

"  6J  x  14 

"  8  x  12 

"  7  x  15 

"  9  x  13 

"  8  x  16 

"  9*  x  14 

"  11  x  16 

"  12  x  18 


Contents  of  Assorted  Cases  of  New  Oval, 


Sizes. 

5x7    1    6x9 

6^x10 

7x11 

8x12 

9x13 

Per  Case. 

No.  1 

No.  2 

H      1       2 
3         |       2 

2 
2 

3 
2 

3 
1 

0 
j 

DOZ. 

$2S.OO 
22.4O 

1.15 


1.75 


Liberal  discounts  on  quantities,  and  by  the  case. 

Book  Slates. — The  following  contain  three  slates  each,  hinged  together,  and 
covered  with  stiff  covers,  like  a  book. 

Sizes  in  inches,  3f  x  6| price  each,  $O.67 

.SO 

"       5^x9" 

Fancy  Double  Slates,— Superior  quality  and  finish,  set  in  fine  wood  panelled 
cases,  polished  and  highly  ornamented,  brass  hinges,  imported.     Eight  sizes. 

Price  (variable  with  gold)   each,   .85  to 

SLATE  PENCILS.— At  lowest  rates,  which  are  variable  with  gold. 

German, — Five,  six,  and  seven  inches,  in  wooden  boxes per  hundred, 

Soapstone. — Four,  five,  and  six  inches,  paper  boxes " 

Composition. — Six  inches,  wooden  boxes per  gross, 

SLATE  RUBBER. — Chamois — "a  gem  for  the  school-room." 

It  dispenses  with  sponge  and  water,  in  erasing  marks  from  the  slate.  No  more  need 
the  teacher  hear  the  frequent  question,  "  Please,  sir,  may  I  go  to  wash  my  slate  ?"  Nor 
need  the  child  spit  upon  his  slate  to  erase  the  marks. 

It  is  made  of  wood  and  Chamois  skin,  arranged  to  bring  a  series  of  edges  of  skin  snugly 
against  the  surface  of  the  slate. 

Every  teacher  will  recommend  it  because  of  its  real  convenience  and  neatness, 
pupil  will  buy  it.     It  costs  no  more  than  a  good  sponge. 

No.  1— size  1  x  H  inches price  per  10Q, 

No.  2 — size  2  inches  square 

(Specimens,  by  mail,  of  No.  1,  10  cents— of  No.  2,  15  cents.) 


Every 

5.00 
8.00 


SCHOOL   STATIONERY. 

School  and  Record  Ink. 


97 


Our  School  Ink  is  specially  put  up 
for  school  use,  and  is  better  adapt- 
ed to  all  school  purposes  than  any 
other  ink  that  we  can  get  made.  It 
flows  freely,  and  flows  jet  black 
from  the  pen ;  it  has  no  sediment ; 
it  does  not  "  gum  up"  the  pen  and 
inkstand;  it  is  unsurpassed  in 
color,  and  it  is  cheap. 

It  is  neatly  and  substantially  put  up, 
smallest  size  in  glass  cones;  the  half- 
pints,  pints,  and  quarts  in  good  glass 
bottles ;  and  the  half-gallons  and  gal- 
lons in  square  tin  cans,  for  compact  and 
safe  shipment  to  any  distance. 

Price  List  of  onr  School  Inl 

Octagonal  Cones,  glass,  per  dozen,  $0.60 
Half-pints,      -      "  1.75 

Pints,        -      -      "  3.50 

Quarts,     -      -      "  6.00 

Half-gallons,  square  tin  cans,  each,   1 .00 

Gallons,  "         2.00 

On  Draught,  $1.50  per  gallon.     Cost 
of  keg  or  barrel  to  be  added. 

Congress  Record  Ini 

No.  1  Stands Per  gross,  $6.00 

N0.2       "       "         10-00 

Half-pints Per  dozen> 

pmts ;; 

Quarts 

(Two-thirds  size.) 

Arnold's  Writing  Fluid— all  sizes:    It  being  imported  prices  fluctuate  with  gold 
All  other  kinds  of  ink  supplied  at  lowest  rates  when  called  for. 


4.00 
7.0O 


SCHOOL     MATERIAL. 


Ink- Wells,  Ink- Well  Covers,  etc. 

Glass  luk-wells  are  in  very  great  demand.     The  points  to  be  regarded  in  selecting 

them  are  few.  First,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  secure  the  largest  pos- 
sible capacity,  and  yet  have 
them  fit  the  usual  bore  of  school 
desks.  Second,  good  glass  is 
necessary,  in  order  to  avoid 
waste  from  breakages,  and 
consequent  damage  tobooks. 
Such  an  ink-well  is  illustrated, 
ftlll  §ize,  in  the  cut.  It  is 
shown  beneath  a  cast-iron  cover, 
japanned  and  hinged. 
The  New  Brass  Ink-well  Cover  is  struck  out  of  sheet-brass,  and  lacquered.  Instead 

of  having  a  hinge,  it  revolves  on 

a  screw,  and  is  noiseless.    It  is 

very  neat,  and  gives  a  bright  and 

ornamental    appearance   to  the 

desk.    It  must  be  admitted  that 

whatever  contributes  to  the  good 

appearance  of  school  furniture, 

is  of  advantage.    We  cannot  do 

too  much  to  make  the  school- 
room look  pleasant  and  cheerful, 

and  thus  cultivate  the  taste  of 

pupils. 

The  Kon-corroding  Metallic  Ink-well,  shown,  full  size,  in  the  cut, 
invented  in  1868.  By  a  new  process  the 
interior  is  made  insoluble  by  ink,  securing 
all  the  advantages  of  glass,  with  increased 
capacity,  strength,  and  durability.  The  loss 
and  annoyance  of  breakage  in  handling  and 
by  frost  is  entirely  disposed  of. 

The  metal  may  be  kept  bright,  giving  an 
ornamental  appearance  to  the  desk.  The 
cover  is  thoroughly  secured  with  a  brass 
hinge.  It  is  made  of  standard  size,  to  fit 
the  usual  bore  of  school  desks. 

Non-corroding  Metallic  Ink  Sock- 
ets, being  the  same  as  shown  in  the  cut 
without  the  cover,  are  supplied  for  use 
with  the  ordinary  iron  covers,  or  with  the 
new  brass  covers.  They  are  durable  and 
economical.  The  size  is  adapted  to  the 
usual  bore  of  school  desks. 


SCHOOL    MATERIAL. 


99 


Ink- Wells,  Ink- Well  Covers,  Ink  Vents,  etc. 

The  American  Locking  Ink-well  Cover  is  a  new  invention,  intended  to  supply  the 

need  of  a  locking  cover  for  the  common  glass 
ink-wells,  or  any  of  the  ordinary  ink  sockets. 
It  is  easily  and  readily  fixed  to  any  desks 
without  the  use  of  screws,  letting  in  flush 
with  the  desk  top.  It  is  made  of  iron,  and 
is  japanned.  The  cut  exhibits  top  view. 

The  opening  in  the  top  is  sufficient  for 
any  size  pen.  It  also  admits  the  key  for 
locking  the  cover  securely  fast  to  the  desk. 
The  size  and  peculiar  shape  of  the  opening 
is  not  liable  to  be  fitted  by  any  knife  or  other 
instrument  which  pupils  are  likely  to  have 
about  them. 

The  pen  opening  is  tightly  closed  by  a  little  pivoted  cover  which  keeps  out  the  dust,  and 
prevents  evaporation  of  the  ink. 

In  short,  this  device  has  more  real  advantages  than  any  of  the  complicated  and  expen- 
sive "patent  locking  ink-wells;"  it  can  be  used  with  the  glass  ink-wells  already  on  hand; 
and  is  simple,  having  no  screws  and  no  hinges ;  it  is  durable  and  it  is  cheap. 


Scarlett's  Ink  Vent  for  filling  Inkstands  and  Ink-wells.— With  this  vent,  a 
steady  stream  may  be  poured,  and  cut  off  promptly.  All  overflow- 
ing inkstands  and  wells,  and  dripping  of  ink  upon  clothing  and 
furniture,  is  thus  avoided.  The  ink  escapes  at  a.  Should  a  drop 
cling  to  the  orifice,  instead  of  falling  on  furniture  or  floor,  it  is  con- 
ducted back  to  the  bottle,  through  the  inclined  gutter  c.  At  b  there 
is  a  small  passage  to  the  interior  of  the  bottle.  This  is  too  small  to 
permit  perceptible  evaporation,  and  yet  admits  sufficient  air  to  cause 
the  ink  to  flow  from  a. 

The  convenience  of  this  invention  will  be  appreciated  by  all  who 
have  had  experience  in  filling  inkstands  in  the  old-fashioned  way. 
The  cork  is  made  tapering,  to  fit  the  mouth  of  any  ink-bottle. 

Specimens  may  be  sent  by  mail  for  25  cents. 


PRICE  LIST  OF  INK-WELLS,  COVERS,  VENTS,  ETC. 

Glass  Ink-wells,  or  Sockets,  shown  in  cut per  dozen, 


Iron  Covers,  japanned,  with  hinge 

Brass  Covers,  lacquered,  new  and  extra  neat 

Non-corroding  Metallic  Ink  Sockets 

Non-corroding  Metallic  Ink-wells,  win  covers 

American  Locking  Ink-well  Cover 

Britannia  Ink-wells,  glass  lined  

Ink  Vents,  Scarlett's  Patent,  for  filling  Ink-wells. 


$0.75 
.75 
1.00 
l.OO 
1.75 
1.00 
2.35 
2.40 


100 


SCHOOL   STATIONERY. 


Teachers'   Inkstands 


Reservoir  Inkstand.  Calendar  Inkstand. 

Morgan's  Patent  Reservoir  and  Calendar  Inkstands  are  well  adapted  for  use  in 
the  school-room,  on  the  teachers'  desks.  The  dipping  cup  is  constantly  supplied  with 
pure  ink  at  a  uniform  depth.  The  sediment  is  prevented  from  flowing  into  the  dipping 
cup  by  a  bar  between  it  and  the  reservoir. 

A  convenient  calendar,  and  a  tasteful  pen-rack  are  combined  with  the  Reservoir  Ink- 
stand (No.  1),  to  make  the  Calendar  Inkstand  (No.  2). 

1. — Reservoir   Inkstand price  each,  $O.25 

2. — Calendar  Inkstand,  with  calendar  and  bronze  pen-rack "        "  .90 

3.— Reversible  Inkstand "         "          l.OO 

No.  3, — The  Teachers'  Reversible  Inkstand  consists  of  a  glass  pot  with  a  ground 

shoulder,  into  which  fits  a  water- 
tight funnel  with  a  hollow  stem  and 
rim.  The  air  which  is  forced  down 
upon  the  ink  causes  it  to  rise  the 
required  height  in  the  stem. 

When  the  stand  is  reversed,  the 
ink  that  is  already  in  the  stem,  and 
no  mare,  will  flow  down  into  the 
hollow  rim,  where  it  stays  till  the 
stand  is  again  brought  to  its  up- 
right position.  Its  chief  points  are  : 
"THE  INK  CAN'T  GET  OUT."  1.  The  ink  cannot  be  spilled.  2. 

The  pen  will  always  reach  JUST  enough  to  fill  it.  3.  The  ink  is  protected  from  the  dust 
and  evaporation.  4.  The  entire  runnel  CAN  BE  REMOVED  to  replenish  with  fresh  ink. 
5.  It  is  simple,  being  made  entirely  of  glass.  6.  It  is  cheap,  costing  but  $1.OO. 


Fancy  Inks,— Writing  and  Copying  combined, 

Violet,  Perfumed,  2  ounce  octagon  cones per  dozen, 

Violet,  square  stands,  flint  glass 

Carmine,  superior,  flint  glass  draped  stands < .  . 

Carmine,  superior,  flint  glass  draped  stands,  ground   glass  stoppers 
Assorted,  Twelve  Colors,  square  stands,  flint  glass 


JO.  75 
1.25 
1.75 
2.50 
1.50 


SCHOOL    MATERIAL. 


101 


The  Celebrated  Spencerian  Steel  Fens. 

The  well-known-  durability  and  perfect  action  of  these  pens,  are  owing  to  a  peculiar 
process  in  carbonizing ;  and  the  main  secret  of  their  popularity  is  the  fact  that  they  are 
manufactured  under  the  supervision  of  the  Original  Inventor  of  steel  pens,  whose 
great  experience,  combined  with  the  aid  of  the  most  skilled  workmen  in  Europe, 
enable  us  to  offer  an  article  as  yet  unsurpassed  in  all  the  qualities  that  are  required  in 
pens  adapted  to  every  style  of  writing.  They  are  a  nearer  approximation  to  the  real 
Swan  Quill  than  anything  hitherto  invented.  These  pens  are  indorsed,  and  constantly 
used  by  the  best  penmen  in  the  country.  They  are  used  exclusively  in  all  the  first-class 
Commercial  Colleges  in  the  United  States  and  Canadas.  They  are  more  largely  used 
than  any  other  pens  by  Cashiers,  Tellers,  Book-keepers,  etc.,  in  the  principal  banking 
houses  throughout  the  country.  They  are  used  by  all  who  have  given  them  a  trial.  They 
comprise  fifteen  numbers,  viz. : 


No. 
No. 
No. 
No. 
No. 
No. 


No.  7. 
No.  8. 
No.  9. 
No.  1O. 
No.  11. 
No.  12. 
No.  13. 
No.  14. 
No.  15. 


PRICES   BY   MAIL: 

COLLEGE  PEN.    Point  Fine ;  Action  Perfect Price  per  Gross,    $1 .25 

COUNTING-HOUSE  PEN.    Point  Fine  and  Flexible "  "             .25 

COMMERCIAL  PEN.    Point  Medium "  .25 

LADIES'  EXTRA  PEN.    Point  Extra  Fine  and  Flexible "  .40 

SCHOOL  PEN.     Point  Fine,  Medium  in  Flexibility "  -             .25 

FLOURISHING  PEN.    Point  Long,  Flexible,  and  Medium  m 

Fineness "  ,25 

QUILL  PEN.    Point  Medium,  Quill  Action "  "             .60 

CONGRESS  PEN.    Medium  Point,  and  very  Flexible "  "             .40 

BANK  PEN.    Point  Long  and  Flexible "  "             .40 

CUSTOM-HOUSE  PEN.    Point  Medium "  "             .60 

UNIVERSITY  PEN.  Point  Medium,  very  Smooth  and  Flexible  "  "             .60 

EPISTOLAIRE  PEN.    Point  very  Fine  and  very  Flexible. ..  "  "           2.5O 

ENGROSSING  PEN.    Point  Blunt  and  Smooth 1.25 

ARTISTIC  PEN.    Flexible,  with  Extra  Fine  Point "  "           1 .60 

THE  QUEEN.    Point  Extra  Fine  and  Even *«  "           1.6O 


Caution. — We  caution  all  who  desire  the  genuine  article  against  purchasing  any 
"  Spencerian"  Pens,  which  have  not  the  initials  "  I.,  P.,  B.  &  Co.,"  or,  "  Ivison,  Pbinney 
£  Co.,"  on  each  Pen. 

^  FOR  SALE  BY  DEALERS  GENERALLY. 

ft^"  Sample  Card,  containing  all  the  15  numbers,  artistically  arranged  and  securely 
inclosed,  sent  by  mail  on  receipt  of  25  cents. 


102  SCHOOL    MATERIAL. 


The  American  Standard  Penmanship. 


The  Spencerian  Penmanship  was  first  published  in  1848,  and  has  worthily  maintained 
its  position  since  then  as  the  most  original  and  most  practical  system  of  writing  extant.  It 
claims  superiority  over  other  systems  in  analysis  and  method;  in  systematically  and 
progressively  arranged  copies  ;  in  simplicity  of  style ;  in  correct  ruling ;  in  its  movement 
exercises  ;  and  in  its  adaptability  to  rapid  and  elegant  business  writing. 

It  is  the  accredited  source  from  which  the  best  penmen  of  the  country  have  derived  their 
knowledge  and  skill  in  the  art.     It  is  used  in  more  Normal  Schools  and  Business  Colleges 
than  all  other  systems  combined.     It  is  more  generally  used  than  any  other  system. 
THE  COPY-BOOKS  are  comprised  in  FOUR  Distinct  Series  :— 
I.— SCHOOL  SERIES,  Nos.  1,  2,  3,  4,  and  5. 

IL— BUSINESS  SERIES,  Nos.  6  and  7. 

III.- LADIES'  SERIES,  Nos.  8  and  9. 

IV.— EXERCISE  SERIES,  Nos.  10,  11,  and  12. 

INTERMEDIATE  BOOK. 
Retail  Price,  1 5  cents  each. 

All  the  letters,  small  and  capital,  with  twelve  short  sentences,  are  contained  in  the  Inter- 
mediate Book.  It  is  ruled  to  regulate  the  relative  length  of  letters,  and  is  undoubtedly  the 
most  practical  and  popular  Copy-book  published. 

The  Spencerian  Key, 

For  the  use  of  Teachers,  Pupils,  and  Professional  Penmen.     Containing  one  hundred  and 
seventy-six  pages,  and  hundreds  of  Illustrations. 

Price,  by  mail,  in  cloth $1.5O 

Cloth  extra,  tinted  paper 2.0O 

Spencerian  Charts  of  Writing  and  Drawing, 

SIX  IN   NUMBER. 

Large  size,  24  by  30  inches ;    on  three  cards. 
Small  size,  19  by  24  inches ;    on  three  cards. 

JJjr*  They  are  so  printed  as  to  present  the  appearance  of  SUPERIOR  BLACKBOARD 
WRITING.  The  letters  can  be  seen  across  the  school-room. 

A  SERIES  OF  DRAWING  LESSONS  is  also  represented  upon  the  Charts,  which,  with  the 
Letters,  make  them  by  far  the  most  attractive  and  instructive  Charts  ever  presented  to 
the  public. 

Large  size,  mounted,  per  express « $3,75 

In  sheets,  per  mail 2.5O 

Small  size,  per  express 1 .80 

In  sheets,  per  mail 0.90 

Teacher's  Guide 

To  the  proper  use  of  Spencerian  Copy-books  and  Charts.    In  pamphlet  form.    30  pages. 

Spencerian  Exercise  Card,  and  Oblique  Lines, 

Containing  Fifty  Exercises  for  confirming  the  hand  in  correct  positions,  and  imparting 
to  it  free  movements.  The  oblique  lines  regulate  the  slant  in  writing.  Price,  by  express, 
5O  cents  per  dozen ;  by  mail,  5  cents  each. 

2^="  Most  liberal  te|ms  given  on  Copy-books  furnished  for  Examination  or  Introduction. 


SCHOOL   STATIONERY. 


103 


Lead  Pencils,  Pencil  Piles,  Holders,  etc. 

LEAD  PENCILS,  FABEE'S,-A11  Grades, 

Imported — prices  variable  with  gold. 

4  Grades. — Nos.  1,  2,  3,  and  4,  in  paper  box. 

5  Grades. — Nos.  1,  2,  3,  4,  and  5,  in  wooden  box. 

5  Grades. — Nos.  1,  2,  3,  4,  and  5,  with  knife  and  rubber, 

in  wooden  box. 

7  Grades. — Nos.  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  and  7,  in  wooden  box. 
10  Grades. — Very  finely  graded,  in  wooden  box. 

Any  grade  in  dozen  or  gross  packages. 
Eagle  Pencils. — Nos.  1,  2,  3,  and  4,  and  varied  styles, 
in  boxes. 

Pencil  File,   With  Dust  BOX,— Squires'  Patent,  for  Lead  and 
Slate  Pencils.    Price,  25  cents. 

The  New  Slate  Pencil  and  Pen-Holder 

Is  a  new  device,  large  enough  to  receive  the  regular  slate  pencils  which  are 
sold  everywhere.  It  is  long  enough  for  a  regular  four  inch  slate  pencil — the 
six  inch  may  be  broken  in  two.  Every  teacher  knows  how  desir- 
able it  is  to  have  the  children  use  a  regular  handle  or  holder  when 
they  write  with  slate  pencil  or  pen.  The  irregular  bits  of  slate  pen- 
cils cramp  the  fingers,  and  injure  them  for  writing. 

The  cut  illustrates  it  somewhat  larger  than  regular  size. 

They  are  put  up  in  paper  boxes,  100  in  each  box.     Price,      5.OO 

Specimen  sent  by  mail  for  1O  cents. 


Propelling  Pencils, 

Red  Wood,  with  German  silver  slide,     - 
Black  Wood,      " 

Red  Wood,  ivory  tips,  German  silver  slide,     - 
Black  Wood,      " 


Stationers'  Gum, 


per  dozen,  1.75 
1.75 
2.25 

-       "  2.25 


White  Rubber.— 4,  8,  12,  16,  20,  24,  30,  40,  60,  80,  to  the  pound. 
Black  Rubber.— 8,  12,  16,  20,  24,  30,  40,  60,  80,  to  the  pound. 


Artists'  Materials  of  all  kinds,  at  best  rates. 


104 


SCHOOL   STATIONERY. 


Fen  and  Pencil  Baskets  and  Racks,  etc. 


Style  A. 


Style  B. 


The  Pen  and  Pencil  Baskets  are  neat,  light,  and  durable.     They  are  imported. 

Style  A  has  three  sizes.      Price,  each 75,  l.OO,  1.25 

Style  B,  only  one  size,  "        1.88 


Squire's  Patent  Pen  and  Pencil  Rack  is  intended  for  collecting,  protecting  from 
loss  or  injury,  and  distributing  pens,  lead  pencils,  and  slate  pencils  in  schools.  Each 
pupil  will  get  his  own,  without  trouble  or  contention.  It  obviates  the  annoyance  arising 
rom  pupils  having  no  pen,  or  a  poor  one — no  pencil,  or  a  short  one.  It  is  durably  made 
of  japanned  tin. 

DIRECTIONS  FOR  USE. — Let  one  pupil  pass  the  rack  for  each  pupil  to  put  his  pen  or 
pencil  in  the  hole  whose  number  has  been  previously  assigned  to  him.  Distribute  in  simi- 
lar manner.  Price,  by  express  (not  mailable) 1.5O 


Teachers'  Pen  Eacks, 


No.  1. 


No.  2. 


No.  3. 


No.  1,  Adapted  to  ordinary  inkstands each,  .35 

2,  French  pattern,  single,  heavy  for  paper-weight '  .40 

3,  Bronze,  new  style . . . ,   , '  »«>O 

Many  other  styles  to  suit  all  tastes. 


SCHOOL    STATIONERY.  105 

Writing,  Exercise,  and  Composition  Books, 

AND    COMPOSITION    PAPER. 

Blank  Writing  Books. — Superfine  white  paper,  fancy  paper  covers,  assorted  colors. 

No.  1 — American  School,  12  leaves. . ,  per  dozen,  $0.75 

No.  2.— High  School,  14  leaves. "  0,95 

Exercise  Books. — Superfine  white  paper,  plainly  ruled. 

No  i. — Cap  quarto,  flexible  covers,  16  leaves, "  1U90 

No.  2.—          "                       "              24  leaves "  2.25 

No.  3.—         "                      "              36  leaves "  8-OO 

Composition  Books. — Superfine  white  paper,  cap  quarto. 

No.  1  .—Quarter  bound,  stiff  cover,  24  leaves "  2.OO 

No.  2. — Half  bound,  red  sheep,  morocco  paper  sides,  50  leaves —  "  4.75 

No.  3.— Half  bound,         "                "                "            84  leaves....  "  7.OO 

No.  3x.— Full  bound,      "         cloth  sides,                   84  leaves....  "  7.5O 

No.  So. — Full  bound,  imitation  morocco,  gilt  edges,  84  leaves "  12.5O 

No.  4. — Half  bound,  red  sheep,  morocco  paper  sides,  112  leaves "  9.5O 


COMPOSITION  PAPEK,-Eider's, 

The  teacher  who  would  improve  his  pupils  in  "  good  English,"  has  invaluable  aid  in 
Mr.  Rider's  method  of  correcting  compositions.  Under  the  old  plan,  weary  hours  are 
passed  in  writing  out  corrections,  which  may  not  be  understood  by  the  pupil,  even  if  he  take 
trouble  to  read  them. 

Rider's  Composition  Paper  makes  the  pupil,  not  the  teacher,  correct  the  composition. 
At  head  of  sheet  is  table  of  rules  and  laws  which  are  usually  neglected,  each  appropriately 
numbered.  The  teacher  underlines  errors,  and  places  in  margin  a  symbol  directing  pupil 
to  proper  item  in  table.  The  pupil  can  examine  and  analyze  the  principle  violated  and 
make  corrections.  Thus  he  inevitably  becomes  technically  and  thoroughly  familiar  with 
the  requirements  of  the  English  language. 

First  Series  is  for  beginners  in  Composition  who  may  be  careless  in  penmanship,  m 
spelling,  in  use  of  capitals,  etc.  Its  proper  use  will  prevent  little  faults,  easy  to  acquire, 
but  difficult  to  mend. 

Second  Series  reviews  the  greater  points  of  the  first,  and  attends  to  selection  of  words, 
grammatical  construction,  formation  of  sentences,  paragraphing,  condensing,  etc.,  etc. 

Third  Series  has  reference  to  rhetorical  correctness  and  elegance,  and  the  cultivation 
of  the  best  style  of  finished  English  composition. 

As  a  time-saving  invention  it  is  most  important,  besides  reducing  composition  to  orderly 
method. 

The  tables  are  neatly  printed  at  the  head  of  letter-paper,  properly  ruled  with  blue  and 
red  lines. 

Specimen  sheets,  by  mail,  pre-paid,  5c.    Price  per  quire,  by  express #0,30 


106 


SCHOOL   STATIONERY. 


Our  School  Rulers. 


These  Rulers  are  made  specially  for  school  purposes.  They  are  well  made 
of  good,  hard  wood,  polished.  They  are  accurately  marked  in  inches,  half- 
inches,  quarter-inches,  and  eighth-inches,  stamped  in  black.  One  edge  is 
properly  bevelled.  There  are  two  sizes— one  twelve  inches  long,  and  the  other 
fifteen  inches.  The  latter  is  recommended  as  most  useful. 

Price,  each ^o 

(Specimen  mailed,  letter  postage,  20  cents.) 

Liberal  discount  on  a  gross. 


Moore's  Cushioned  Blotters, 

Walnut,  small,  plain each,  $O.5O 

Cedar,        "        «    «  .60 

Rosewood,  polished "  .§5 

Paper,  small,  for  jsach  of  above per  packet,  .10 

Walnut,  large,  plain each,  .75 

Rosewood,  large,  polished "  1.25 

Paper,  large per  packet,  .10 


Blotting  Paper. 

Parker's  Treasury,  80,  100,  120  pounds  to  ream,  white  or 

colored per  quire,  I.2O  to  $2.25 

Blotting  Pads  (12  pieces  in  packet) per  packet,       ,1O 


Erasers. 

Green's  Patent  Ink  Erasers price  per  100  pieces,  $5.OO 

Erasing  Knives.— Joseph  Rodgers  &  Sons'  wood  handle, 

bone    handle,  ivory  handle,  imported.     Price  variable 

with  gold. 


Penholders. 

Accommodation,  steel  tips .per  gross, 

Double  Conic,  Cedar,  small,  steel  tips 

"  "  "       medium,  steel  tips " 

«  «  «       large,          "      " " 


2.2O 
2.67 
3.00 


Pen  Racks  of  varied  styles,  prices  each,  2O  to  6O  cents. 


SCHOOL    STATIONERY.  107 

Papers — Note,  Letter,  Cap,  Manuscript,  Initial, 

AND    STATIONERY    CASES. 

The  following  are  white  wove,  ruled,  superfine,  highly  finished.     They  are  neatly  put 
up  in  manilla  outside  wrappers,  with  the  numbers  and  weights  marked  on  each  package. 

The  note  and  letter  papers  are  in  quarter-ream  packages,  and  the  cap  papers  in  half-ream 
packages. 

Octavo  Note— 3Va  pounds  to  the  ream price  per  ream,    $1.25 

4  u         4i         "       "         "  1.4O 

5  1.75 
Commercial  Note — 4  pounds  to  the  ream "         "  1 .40 

5  "           "         "     "         "  1.75 

6  ' "         "  2.10 

7  "           "         "     "         "  2.45 

Letter  Paper— 8  pounds  to  the  ream "         "  2.8O 

9       "          "         "     "         "  3.15 

10       "         "           '    "         "  3.50 

12       "         "          "    "         •'  4.20 

Foolscap— 10  pounds  to  the  ream 4i         "  3. SO 

12       "          "         u     "         "  4.20 

14                                                                   "         "  4.9O 

Broad  Bill  Cap— 10  pounds  to  the  ream "         "  4.OO 

12 "         "  4.80 

"         14       "          "         "     "         «  5.60 

Legal  Cap— 10  pounds  to  the  ream "         "  4,OO 

12       "          "         "     •'         "  4.80 

14       "          "         "     "         "  5.60 


Manuscript  Papers, 


A  carefully  prepared  set  of  rules  for  properly  preparing  manuscript  for  the  press  accompanies 

Nos.  2  and  3. 

No.  1.— Students'  Manuscript,  size  33/4  *  8  inches,  flat  sheets  for  pencil,  with  three  perfora- 
tions at  top  for  affixing  to  the  eyeletted  case — ruled  on  one  side  per  ream  $1 .00 

No.  2. — Editors'  Manuscript,  size  5  x  10  inches,  flat  sheet,  with  three  perforations  at  top  of 

sheet  for  tying  them  together  in  parts  or  chapters per  ream  1 .20 

No.  3.— Contributors'  Manuscript,  like  No.  2,  somewhat  thicker "  1.8O 

No.  4.— Authors'  Manuscript,  size  6  x  10  inches,  flat  sheet,  otherwise  like  No.  3. . .        "  2.25 


Initial  Stationery, 


This  is  very  handsomely  put  up  in  paper  boxes,  containing  one  quire  ladies'  note,  with  envelopes 
to  match. 

No.  1.— Everett,  white  wove per  box,  .25 

No.  2. — Siddons,  rose  tint,  ornamented  box,  perfumed .30 

No.  3 Oriental,  auburn  tint,  hinged  neck  box,  ornamented  with  colored  plates. . .  .60 

No.  4 — Offered  and  Accepted,  lavender  tint,  ornamented  with  large  colored  plates,       "  .45 

No.  5. — Galaxy,  white  wove,  ornamented  box .30 

This  initial  stationery  will  be  mailed  for  1O  cents  extra  for  postage. 


Stationery  Oases. 


No.  1 — With  three  apartments ;  for  letter  paper,  note  paper,  and  envelopes each,  1.56 

No.  2. — With  four  apartments,  and  drawer  for  containing  stamps,  etc "  2.  SO 

No.  3 — With  three  apartments,  and  small  trays  for  holding  pins,  stamps,  wafers,  pen- 
cils, etc "  2.70 


108 


SCHOOL   STATIONERY. 


Paper  Weights,  Folders,  Clips,  Mucilage,  etc. 


Paper  Weights. — Bronze,  glass,  iron — various  styles  and  sizes  ...  .each,  .20  to  $1.75 
Paper  Folders,  and  Check  Cutters. — Japanned  tin,  2  to  4  inches  wide,  each,  .20 
Ivory  Folders,  and  Paper  Knives. — 5,  6,  7,  8,  9,  and  10  inches  long, 

each 15  to  .75 

Letter  Clips, 

A  variety  of  styles  and  sizes,  each, 
$O.15  to  1.25. 


Board  Clips, — Cloth  Sides, 

Cap,      Iron  $O.75 

Letter,     "    

Note,        "    

Cap,      Brass 

Letter,     "      

Note,       " 


.63 
.52 
.SO 
.70 
.60 


These  clips  are  supplied  with  the  spring  either  on  the  side  or  on  the  end,  as  may  be  desired. 


No.  1.  No.  4. 

Morgan's  Patent  Eeservoir  Mucilage  Stands, 

No.  1. — Pressed  Flint  Glass,  with  brush each,  $  1.5O 


2.— Flint  Glass,  with  brush " 

3.— Flint  Glass,  with  brush '  " 

4. — Pressed  Flint  Glass,  with  brush " 

Stickwell  &  CO.'S  Mudlage,— Made  from  pure  Gum  Arabic. 

Three  Ounce  Cones,  with  cup  and  brush per  dozen, 

Eight  Ounce      " 

Pints,  glass  bottles 

Quarts,  glass  bottles 


.40 

.40 

1.5O 

1.75 

5.00 

6.00 

11.00 


SCHOOL   STATIONERY. 


109 


Envelopes. — Letter  and  Official  Sizes. 


Sizes,  j- 

5 
N.  Gov. 

6 

H 

3|x6 

A 

7 

*8fs 

9 

31x81 

No.Pa'r 

MANILLA, 

115 
ISO 

$1  50 
1  65 

$1  70 
1  80 

$1  90 
1  90 

$2  20 
2  30 

$3  30 

$3  00 
3  20 

$3  00 
3  30 

x  x 

225 

3  20 

3  60 

3  80 

4  00 

5  80 

6  00 

GOLD, 

203 

1  40 

1  CO 

, 

2758 

1  90 

2  20 

2  40 

2  90 

3757 

2  10 

2  40 

2  60 

3  00 

4  30 

4  40 

4  60 

1475 

2  15 

2  40 

2  60 

3  00 

5  00 

X 

475 

2  35 

2  70 

290 

3  40 

5  30 

J  M's                        xx 

2040 

2  70 

3  15 

3  30 

3  80 

6  00 

i  M's                          xx 

5O4O 

2  85 

3  30 

3  50 

4  00 

650 

X 

3245 

2  50 

2  90 

3  10 

X 

4245 

2  70 

3  15 

3  30 

3  80 

J-  M's                          x  x 

1575 

3  00 

3  50 

3  70 

i  M's                       x  x  1     575 

325 

3  75 

3  90 

4  50 

LIGHT  BUFF, 

2068 

i  no 

2  20 

2  40 

2  90 

4  50 

3776 

2  10 

2  40 

2  60 

300 

440 

4  60 

x 

4545 

2  35 

2  70 

2  90 

340 

4  80 

5  00 

5  30 

x 

477 

2  50 

2  90 

3  10 

i  M's                          x  x 

635 

2  85 

3  30 

3  50 

4  00 

6  50 

i  M's                          x  x 

563 

3  00 

3  50 

3  70 

X 

4775 

2  70 

3  15 

3  30 

380 

5  50 

600 

6  20 

J  M's                       xx 

5635 

3  25 

3  75 

3  90 

4  50 

7  00 

7  50 

7  50 

i  M's                      xxx 

660O 

3  80 

4  40 

4  60 

OORN,                                           x 

495 

2  35 

2  70 

2  90 

£  M's                         xx 

5O3O 

2  85 

3  30 

3  50 

4  00 

1  M's                         x  x 

530 

3  00 

3  50 

3  70 

y 

1495 

2  50 

2  90 

3  10 

X 

4950 

2  70 

3  15 

3  SO 

3  80 

5  50 

6  00 

6  20 

}  M'S                             xx 

5725 

3  25 

3  75 

3  90 

4  50 

7  00 

7  50 

7  50 

±  M'S                      xxx 

7700 

3  80 

4  40 

4  60 

CANARY, 

3036 

2  10 

2  40 

2  60 

300 

460 

1045 

2  35 

2  70 

2  90 

3  40 

5  30 

x 

2045 

2  50 

2  90 

3  10 

360 

x  x 

1515 

3  l>0 

3  50        3  70 

X 

145 

2  70 

3  15        3  30 

3  80 

5  50 

6  00 

6  20 

i  M's                             x 

515 

3  25 

3  75   |     3  90 

4  50 

7  50 

J  M's                      xxx 

5500 

3  80 

4  40 

4  60 

ORANGE.                                           x 

34O 

2  70 

3  15 

330 

3  80 

'  }  M's                          x  x 

504 

3  25 

3  75 

3  90 

4  50 

MELON,     *  M's                         xx 

595 

3  25 

3  75 

390 

450 

WHITE, 

128 
3136 

1  90 
2  70 

2  20 
3  15 

2  40 
3  30 

2  90 
380 

5  50 

600 

6  20 

x 

215 

2  35 

2  70 

2  90 

530 

i  M's                         xx 

532 

2  85 

3  30 

3  50 

6  50 

*  M's                            x 

134O 

3  10 

3  60 

3  75 

J.  M's                           x 

134 

3  25 

3  75 

3  90 

4  50 

7  00 

640 

6  60 

J  M'S                              xx 

13 

3  60 

4  00 

425 

3-  M's                        xx 

106 

3  75 

4  20 

440 

5  00 

7  20- 

780 

8  00 

i  M's                          x  x 

lf>«0 

3  75 

4  20 

4  40 

5  00 

i  M's                      xxx 

126 

4  40 

5  15 

5  40 

Envelopes  not  designated  as  "  {  M's"  are  put  up  in  £  M's.  For  £  M's  add  15c.  per  M. 
to  price  of  •£•  M's.  Envelopes  designated  as  "  £  M's"  can  be  put  up  in  |  M's  at  15c.  per 
M.less. 

NOTE. — "  M."  represents  one  thousand. 

x 's  are  arbitrary  marks,  representing  thickness  of  paper. 


110 


SCHOOL    STATIONERY. 


Post-office  Boxes,  Stationery  Cases,  and  Calendars. 


Post-office  Boxes, 


No.  1,  One  part,  "  Post-office/' each,     .34 

2,  Two  parts,  "  Post-office  and  Delivery," «     1.2O 

3,  Three  parts,  "  Post-office,  Packet,  and  Delivery," «     1.5O 

Stationery  Cases, 

No.  1,  Is  a  very  convenient  article  for  holding  let- 
ter and  note  paper,  and  places  for  envelopes; 
also,  with  a  drawer  for  containing  stamps,  etc., 
each 2.4O 

No.  2,  With  three  compartments,  for  billheads  or 
papers;  also,  contains  small  trays,  for  holding 
pins,  stamps,  wafers,  pens,  lead  pencils,  etc., 
each 2.60 

No.  3,  With  three  compartments,  for  letter  paper, 
note  paper,  and  envelopes  each,  I.5O 


Calendars. 


No.  1,  Showing  day  of  month each,  .40 

2,  Showing  month,  and  day  of  month "      .50 

3,  Showing  month,  day  of  week,  and  day  of  month "      .65 


SCHOOL    STATIONERY. 


Ill 


Drawing  Papers,  Bristol  Boards,  Drawing  Books, 

AND    ERASABLE    TABLETS. 


erg,  — Whatman's  English,  imported.    Prices  variable  with  gold. 


Cap, 

Demy, 

Medium, 


Cap, 

Demy, 

Medium, 


14  x  17,  rough  or  smooth, 

15  x  20, 
17  x  22, 


Royal,  19  x  24,  rough  or  smooth, 

Super  Royal,  19  x  27,        " 
Imperial,  22  x  30, 


German  Drawing  Papers,— Variable  with  gold. 


14  x  17, 

15  x  20, 
17  x  22, 


Royal,  19  x  24, 

Super  Royal,    19  x  27, 
Imperial,  22  x  30, 


Bristol  Boards.— Reynolds  &  Son's  best.     Variable  with  gold. 


Cap, 


Demy, 


two  sheets  thick. 

three    " 

four       " 

two       "         " 

three     " 

four      " 


Medium,  two  sheets  thick. 

three     " 

four  " 

Royal,  two  " 
"  three  "  " 

four 


Drawing  Books,— Interleaved  with  tissue  paper. 

per  dozen,     $1.OO 
1.10 
-      "  1.75 


No.  1. — Demy,  4to.  printed   covers,     8  leaves, 
No.  2.         "          "  "  "         16       " 

No.  3.         "          "  "  "         24       "     - 


First-Class  Cold  Pressed  Drawing  Paper, 

Interleaved  with  tissue  paper. 

per  dozen,  1.88 
3.75 
6.00 
2.38 
4.50 
8.75 
2.75 
5.50 
10.0O 


No.  1.—  Cap,         4 

to   quarter  bound,  12 

No.  2.       " 

24 

No.  3. 

'      full  clotfh  gilt,    48 

No.  4.—  Demy, 

'      quarter  bound,  1? 

No.  5. 

'      full  cloth  gilt,    24 

No.  6. 

"       48 

No.  7.  —  Medium, 

'      quarter  bound,  12 

No.  8. 

"       24 

No.  9. 

half           "       48 

Erasable  Tablets,  — White.— (Use  a  soft  lead  pencil— erase  with 

a  damp  cloth  or  sponge.) 

Elementary  Drawing  Tablet,  -       per  dozen, 

Progressive        " 
Elementary  Writing       " 
Leaf  Tablet,  size  4i  x  7  inches, 
Spelling  Tablet,  ruled  for  40  words,  size  5x8  inches,    - 

A  variety  of  styles  for  the  pocket  and  office. 


3.00 
3.00 
3.OO 
1.00 
1.20 


112 


SCHOOL   MATERIAL. 


Lunch  Boxes,  School  Bags,  etc. 


FOLDED  EJ-AT 


The  Patent  Folding  Lunch  Box, 


This  is  a  novelt}',  and,  doubtless,  will  be  in  brisk  demand,  because,  when  relieved  of  the 
daily  rations,  it  is  handy  and  compact.  It  folds  up  to  only  three  times  the  thickness  of  the 
tin  of  which  it  is  made 

Price O.5O 

Liberal  discount  when  quantities  are  purchased. 


The  French  School  Bags 

are  made  of  very  light  and  durable  material.     There  are  two  kinds — white  and  colored — 


four  sizes  of  each  kind. 
No.  1,  price 

"    2,     "     

"    3,     "     

"    4,     " 


O.6o 

.75 

1.00 

1.25 


Oval  Palm-Leaf  School  Valise.  . 
Square  Palm-Leaf  School  Valise . 


....  each,     2.5O 
«       2.50 


SCHOOL   MATERIAL. 


113 


Book-Carriers,  Easels,  Rests,  etc. 

THE  PATENT  BOOK-CAEEIEK,  for  Boys  and  Girls 


The  damage  which  books  receive  between 
home  and  school  is  greater  than  their  neces- 
sary wear  and  tear  when  in  regular  use.  The 
common  book- strap  is  a  convenience  in  keeping 
books  together;  but  is  sadly  destructive  to  the 
bindings. 

The  cut  represents  an  invention  to  obviate 
this  difficulty.  It  finds  great  favor  with 
teachers,  pupils,  and  parents,  and  is  proving  a 
success.  The  cut  shows  it  partly  filled  with 
books  and  slate.  It  is  simple  and  durable. 

Price...  .    O.5O 


Moore's  Needle  Gun  Book- 
Clamp  is  a  later  invention  for  the 
same  purpose.  It  winds  up  with  a 
wheel,  held  by  a  ratchet  under  the 
handle.  When  operated  it  makes  a 
peculiar  "  horse  fiddle"  noise,  which 
is  supposed,  by  some,  to  be  music  to 
the  ears  of  school  children. 


Price. 


0.50 


KENDALL'S  BOOK-EEST,  for  the  Desk  or.  Library  Table. 


The  convenience  of  a  well-adapted  rest 
for  the  book,  and  the  advantages  of  a 
proper  angle  for  easy  vision,  are  too  fully 
recognized  by  all  readers  to  require  dis- 
cussion here. 

KENDALL'S  REST  for  the  book  unites  in 
one  simple  apparatus  all  the  requisites  of  a 
perfect  book  rest — for  any  size  of  book. 

It  consists  of  three  standards  united  at 
the  top  by  a  metallic  head,  which  allows 
the  outside  standards  to  open  like  the  legs 
of  a  compass,  while  the  middle  leg  turns 
back.  To  this  tripod  is  attached  the  shelf 
which  carries  the  fingers  or  springs  for 
holding  the  book  open.  The  whole  can 
be  "unshipped"  in  a  second,  and  folded  flat,  as  easily 
mailable.) 

Price  . 


a  carpenter's  rule.     (Not 
1.00 


114 


SCHOOL    STATIONERY. 


Rewards. 

BEWAED-OF-MEEIT  CAEDS, 


No.    1,  size,  If  x  2|,  in  one  color,  for  day-schools, 

"      2  "  1^-  x  3^            "             "             " 

"      3,  "  2^  x  3f,  in  two  colors,             "... 

"      4,  "  2^x3^          "            "     Sunday-schools, 

"      5,  "  21  x  5,           "            "    day-schools, 

"      6,  "  3    x5fc          "            "                                -        - 

"      7,  "  3    x5i          "            "     Sunday-schools, 

"      8,  "  2f  x  4i,  illuminated,  "    day-schools, 

"         Q  '*  Oi  -v  A.i.                "                   «                  « 

y,  ^  a  X  4-4 , 

"    10,  "  2^  x  4,    in  one  color,              " 

"11  '*  3    x  5^-              "                           •' 

"    12,  "  2^x3|,            "                         " 

"    13,  "  2f  x  4£,  illuminated,               " 

"    14,  "  2^  x  3^,  in  one  color,       Sunday-schools, 

"    15,  "  2 1  x  4^,  illuminated,                    " 

"    16,  "  2f  x  3|,  colored,              day-schools, 

"    17.  "  2|  x  4£,  illuminatea,       Sunday-schools, 

"    18,  "  2^x4i, 

"19,  "  3    x  5^,  colored,               day-schools,        ...                » 

"    20,  "  2    x  3i,  in  one  color,       Sunday-schools,           -         -                " 

n     01  <«  oa  *  4.1.              "                                          «                                                                <« 

•^Ij  <Ag      A    ^8) 

"    22,  "  Ifx2i         "                  Jlay-schools, 

"    23,  "  2|x3^,          "                            " 

"    24,  "  2|  x  4i  iUuminated, 

"    25,  '  2^  x  3|,  in  two  colors,     Sunday-schools, 

The  illuminated  kinds  are  put  up  in  envelopes,  10  cards  in  each  envelope. 
A  discount  allowed  when  ordered  by  the  1000. 


per  hundred 


0.30 

.40 

.70 

.70 

.§4 

1.12 

1.12 

2.00 

1.50 

.67 

.90 

.72 

2.22 

.50 

1.40 

.95 

2.44 

1.70 

1.40 

.50 

.72 

.40 

.62 

2.44 

.64 


TESTIMONIALS, —Appropriate  Designs, 


Neatly  lithographed  on  heavy  white  paper. 
No.  1,  size,  6£  in.  x  9^  in. 
"    2,    «    8    in.  x  10  in. 
"    3,    «    10  in.  x  12  in. 


O.5O 
.60 
.72 


Special  Testimonials  or  Diplomas  to  order. 


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